Thie first quote comes from Atalante in the thead entitled "Atlantis=Island-Peninsula"

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Strabo explained the difference between continents, islands, and peninsulas.

quote from: http://www.ukans.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/1D*.html

"Next, after saying that there has been much discussion about the continents, and that some divide them by the rivers (the Nile and the Tanaïs), declaring them to be islands, while others divide them by the isthmuses (the isthmus between the Caspian and the Pontic Seas, and the isthmus between the Red Sea and the Ecregma), and that the latter call the continents peninsulas, Eratosthenes then says that he does not see how this investigation can end in any practical result, but that it belongs only to persons who choose to live on a diet of disputation"

At the bottom of the following link there is a map of the continents, as the Greeks understood them at that time. http://www.livius.org/ea-eh/edges/edges.html

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To which Chronos also added earlier in this thread:

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Incidentally, even if the translation reads "before" rather than "beyond" the Pillars of Hercules, it doesn't neccessarily disqualify the Azores as Atlantis. In fact, for Atlantis to actually be Spain, one might argue that the translation would have to read "beside" the Pillars of Hercules, rather than "before." That would be their correct geographic location.

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"The whole country was said by him to be very lofty and precipitous on the side of the sea, but the country immediately about and surrounding the city was a level plain, itself surrounded by mountains which descended towards the sea; it was smooth and even, and of an oblong shape, extending in one direction three thousand stadia, but across the centre inland it was two thousand stadia. This part of the island looked towards the south, and was sheltered from the north."

"Such was the vast power which the god settled in the lost island of Atlantis;

"This power came forth out of the Atlantic Ocean, for in those days the Atlantic was navigable; and there was an island situated in front of the straits which are by you called the Pillars of Heracles; the island was larger than Libya and Asia put together, and was the way to other islands, and from these you might pass to the whole of the opposite continent which surrounded the true ocean; for this sea which is within the Straits of Heracles is only a harbour, having a narrow entrance, but that other is a real sea, and the surrounding land may be most truly called a boundless continent."

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As Andrew Collins also says, "you really have to play around with the geography of Timaeus for Atlantis to be in Spain."

http://pandorasfiles.com/research/atlantis/chapter3_2.htm

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Soviet Case for Atlantis

On the 27th of March 1979, the Soviet vessel, of oceanographic research, "Vityaz" was found at the delta of the Portugeuese river Tago. During the same night journalists from all over the country and abroad, would listen to Dr. Ascenov's scientific announcements regarding the results of their research in the Atlantic.
After the necessary introduction to the journalists, the Soviet oceanologist announced some peculiar results regarding their research within the Atlantic ocean.

" In an Area that is located 900 kilometers off the Portuguese shores, an underwater plateau was identified, with strange formations. The plateau is on top of an underwater mountain. After extensive research and based to the measurements of our scientific equipment, we have identified possible ruins of a submerged city. We clearly identified destroyed walls and gigantic stairs. And although all these items are covered with loads of marine plants, we managed to take clear photos of the area. The photos are showing symmetrical stone constructions, staircases and other remains. All this material will be sent to Moscow for further analysis".
      
this short announcement, the soviet scientists revealed to the journalists, that they could have probably found Atlantis.
The Soviet vessel continued its mission searching the oceanic floor west of Madeira.

Close to this area there is an underwater mountain called "Amber". Five years later, in 1984 when the Soviet scientists concluded their research, they announced that "Amber" mountain, once was an island that was eventually submerged without giving any more information.

In September of the following year (1985) "Pravda" reported that the Soviets had pulled out of the ocean, from a depth of 4,500 meters a strange piece of marble. This discovery was made by another Soviet vessel: "Academic Boris Petrov". This new finding, puzzled the scientists.
The marble artifact's sides were smoothened. Its color was yellowish. Its schema betrayed artificial origin. The Soviet scientists mentioned that it was definitely man-made. By chemical analysis they produced palaeochronology results, showing that this piece of marble was lying at the bottom of the ocean for thousands of years (the experimental procedure unfortunately was not published).

The leading scientist of the Soviet Academy of Science, Leo Chitrov declared that he would personally head the research for the chemical analysis of the find. Since then, the Soviet Academy never announced anything regarding the results.

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I looked back down the side we had just cleared. There the mountain rose only 700 to 800 feet above the plains; but on its far slope it crowned the receding bottom of this part of the Atlantic by a height twice that. My eyes scanned the distance and took in a vast area lit by intense flashes of light. In essence, this mountain was a volcano. Fifty feet below its peak, amid a shower of stones and slag, a wide crater vomited torrents of lava that were dispersed in fiery cascades into the heart of the liquid mass. So situated, this volcano was an immense torch that lit up the lower plains all the way to the horizon.

As I said, this underwater crater spewed lava, but not flames. Flames need oxygen from the air and are unable to spread underwater; but a lava flow, which contains in itself the principle of its incandescence, can rise to a white heat, overpower the liquid element, and turn it into steam on contact. Swift currents swept away all this diffuse gas, and torrents of lava slid to the foot of the mountain, like the disgorgings of a Mt. Vesuvius over the city limits of a second Torre del Greco.

In fact, there beneath my eyes was a town in ruins, demolished, overwhelmed, laid low, its roofs caved in, its temples pulled down, its arches dislocated, its columns stretching over the earth; in these ruins you could still detect the solid proportions of a sort of Tuscan architecture; farther off, the remains of a gigantic aqueduct; here, the caked heights of an acropolis along with the fluid forms of a Parthenon; there, the remnants of a wharf, as if some bygone port had long ago harbored merchant vessels and triple-tiered war galleys on the shores of some lost ocean; still farther off, long rows of collapsing walls, deserted thoroughfares, a whole Pompeii buried under the waters, which Captain Nemo had resurrected before my eyes!

Where was I? Where was I? I had to find out at all cost, I wanted to speak, I wanted to rip off the copper sphere imprisoning my head.

But Captain Nemo came over and stopped me with a gesture. Then, picking up a piece of chalky stone, he advanced to a black basaltic rock and scrawled this one word:

ATLANTIS

What lightning flashed through my mind! Atlantis, that ancient land of Meropis mentioned by the historian Theopompus; Plato’s Atlantis; the continent whose very existence has been denied by such philosophers and scientists as Origen, Porphyry, Iamblichus, d’Anville, Malte-Brun, and Humboldt, who entered its disappearance in the ledger of myths and folk tales; the country whose reality has nevertheless been accepted by such other thinkers as Posidonius, Pliny, Ammianus Marcellinus, Tertullian, Engel, Scherer, Tournefort, Buffon, and d’Avezac; I had this land right under my eyes, furnishing its own unimpeachable evidence of the catastrophe that had overtaken it! So this was the submerged region that had existed outside Europe,Asia, and Libya, beyond the Pillars of Hercules, home of those powerful Atlantean people against whom ancient Greece had waged its earliest wars!

The writer whose narratives record the lofty deeds of those heroic times is Plato himself. His dialogues Timaeus and Critias were drafted with the poet and legislator Solon as their inspiration, as it were.

One day Solon was conversing with some elderly wise men in the Egyptian capital of Sais, a town already 8,000 years of age, as documented by the annals engraved on the sacred walls of its temples. One of these elders related the history of another town 1,000 years older still. This original city of Athens, ninety centuries old, had been invaded and partly destroyed by the Atlanteans. These Atlanteans, he said, resided on an immense continent greater than Africa and Asia combined, taking in an area that lay between latitude 12° and 40° north. Their dominion extended even to Egypt. They tried to enforce their rule as far as Greece, but they had to retreat before the indomitable resistance of the Hellenic people. Centuries passed. A cataclysm occurred—floods, earthquakes. A single night and day were enough to obliterate this Atlantis, whose highest peaks (Madeira, the Azores, the Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands) still emerge above the waves.

These were the historical memories that Captain Nemo’s scrawl sent rushing through my mind. Thus, led by the strangest of fates, I was treading underfoot one of the mountains of that continent! My hands were touching ruins many thousands of years old, contemporary with prehistoric times! I was walking in the very place where contemporaries of early man had walked! My heavy soles were crushing the skeletons of animals from the age of fable, animals that used to take cover in the shade of these trees now turned to stone!

Oh, why was I so short of time! I would have gone down the steep slopes of this mountain, crossed this entire immense continent, which surely connects Africa with America, and visited its great prehistoric cities. Under my eyes there perhaps lay the warlike town of Makhimos or the pious village of Eusebes, whose gigantic inhabitants lived for whole centuries and had the strength to raise blocks of stone that still withstood the action of the waters. One day perhaps, some volcanic phenomenon will bring these sunken ruins back to the surface of the waves! Numerous underwater volcanoes have been sighted in this part of the ocean, and many ships have felt terrific tremors when passing over these turbulent depths. A few have heard hollow noises that announced some struggle of the elements far below, others have hauled in volcanic ash hurled above the waves. As far as the equator this whole seafloor is still under construction by plutonic forces. And in some remote epoch, built up by volcanic disgorgings and successive layers of lava, who knows whether the peaks of these fire-belching mountains may reappear above the surface of the Atlantic!

As I mused in this way, trying to establish in my memory every detail of this impressive landscape, Captain Nemo was leaning his elbows on a moss-covered monument, motionless as if petrified in some mute trance. Was he dreaming of those lost generations, asking them for the secret of human destiny? Was it here that this strange man came to revive himself, basking in historical memories, reliving that bygone life, he who had no desire for our modern one? I would have given anything to know his thoughts, to share them, understand them!

We stayed in this place an entire hour, contemplating its vast plains in the lava’s glow, which sometimes took on a startling intensity. Inner boilings sent quick shivers running through the mountain’s crust. Noises from deep underneath, clearly transmitted by the liquid medium, reverberated with majestic amplitude.

Just then the moon appeared for an instant through the watery mass, casting a few pale rays over this submerged continent. It was only a fleeting glimmer, but its effect was indescribable. The captain stood up and took one last look at these immense plains; then his hand signaled me to follow him.

History

The history of Cape Verde is dominated by three overriding facts: there were no people of any sort on the islands when the Portuguese first arrived; the environment has become increasingly fragile over the centuries, largely due to the impact of people and overgrazing; and it's farther from the African mainland and closer to the Americas than any other African country. It's hardly surprising, therefore, that Cape Verde developed along lines somewhat different from the rest of Africa.

When Portuguese mariners first landed in Cape Verde in 1456, the islands were barren of people but not of vegetation. Seeing the islands today, you find it hard to imagine that they were once sufficiently verde (green) to entice the Portuguese to return six years later to the island of São Tiago to found Ribeira Grande (now Cidade Velha). The Portuguese soon brought slaves from the West African coast to do the hard labour. The islands also became a convenient base for ships transporting slaves to Europe and the Americas.

Environment

The Cape Verde islands are in the Atlantic Ocean, 620km (385mi) west of West Africa's coast at Mauritania. There are 10 major islands (9 of them inhabited) and 5 islets, all of volcanic origin and grouped into the Barlavento (Windward) group (Santo Antão, São Vicente, Santa Luzia, Ilheu Branco, Ilheu Raso, São Nicolau, Sal and Boa Vista) to the north and the Sotavento (Leeward) group (Maio, São Tiago, Fogo and Brava) to the south.

The interior of the main island, São Tiago, is mountainous, and Fogo has the islands' highest peak, Mt Fogo (2840m/9320ft). Fogo was rocked by a volcanic eruption in 1995; there have been seven such eruptions since 1760. Many of the islands are arid and hilly, and cultivation of the hillsides has caused widespread soil erosion. Santo Antão has the highest rainfall and tends to be much greener than the other islands.

Common plants in the islands include rhododendrons, the fire tree, dragon tree, marmulano, corn plant and the Florida Beauty dracaena.

Among the islands' most colourful fauna are its coral and fish, especially in the waters around Sal, where you'll see parrot fish, barracuda and moray eels. You might also spot blue and humpback whales, the narrow-snouted dolphin, harbour porpoise and loggerhead, green and hawksbill turtles. The Raza Island lark, Cape Verde petrel, brown booby, frigatebird, tropicbird and Cape Verde warbler are among the birds winging around the archipelago. Creepy crawlies include the Cape Verde skink and the giant Cape Verde gecko.

Cape Verde has the coolest temperatures of any country in West Africa. Daily highs range from 20°C (68°F) to around 29°C (84°F) from August to October, when there can also be rainstorms. Due to ocean currents, the sea is also considerably chillier than along the West African coast.

Area: 4,030 sq km
Population: 401,343
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/africa/cape_verde/environment.htm

"The distance from the Great Pyramid to Easter Island is approximately 40% of the circumference of the Earth. The X in the diagram is halfway between the two, 20% each way. Machupicchu is halfway between the X in the diagram and Easter Island, 10% each way. The Distance from the Great Pyramid to Angkor Wat is approximately 20% of the circumference, and the Indus Valley is halfway between the two, 10% each way. The Distance from Easter Island to Angkor Wat is approximately 40% of the circumference, and Anatom Island is halfway between them, 20% each way. These sites are located in multiples of 10% of the circumference of the Earth, and particularly at 20% intervals. Although there are no islands near the location of the X in the diagram, it is interesting to note that the famous Piri Reis map shows a large island in this location, and the geology of recent core samples, taken from the ocean floor in this area, is of continental rather than oceanic type rock:

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Geological structure of the Strakhov fracture zone (equatorial segment of the Mid-Atlantic ridge)

G. B. Udintsev, A. F. Beresnev, V. M. Golod, A. V. Kol'tsova, N. A. Kurentsova, and M. V. Zakharov

Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow

G. V. Agapova

Institute of Geology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow

L. P. Volokitina

P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow

V. G. Udintsev

Shmidt Institute of Earth Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow

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Abstract

Geological-geophysical data obtained during cruises 7, 11, and 12 of R/V Akademic Nikolay Strakhov (1989-1991) within the international project EQUARIDGE in the region of Strakhov fracture zone (4oN) are presented. The trough of the fracture is interpreted as an open extension joint, a graben produced by stretching along the axis of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Bedrock studies showed that the typical mid-oceanic tholeiitic basalts occur within the narrow (60 nm wide) axial rift zone, whereas igneous rocks not typical to the ocean were found on the eastern and western flank plateaus. This allows us to suppose that a reworked relict continental-type basement of pre-Upper Jurassic age possibly exists beneath the flank plateaus, within the segment under discussion. The above data correspond to the hypothesis by E. Bonatti about a nonspreading nature of the basement of Mid-Atlantic Ridge within the Equatorial segment and the Strakhov fracture zone.

Figures 3, Tables 3, References 22, Pages 544-558
Received December 16, 1993

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Madeira

The flora is so exotic it seems contrived. Anthurium; orchids; bird-of-paradise; variegated lilies; protea and other flowers usually seen only in florists (and priced by the stem) bloom voluntarily.

Some 68 plants including three varieties of orchids grow in Madeira but nowhere else, at least not in their natural environment. Another 42 also occur in the Azores, Canaries and Cape Verde (the total region is called Macaronesia), and still others brought here by accident or intent on trading vessels from Asia and Africa quickly adapted to the soil and climate.

Bananas, mangos, avocados, papaya, oranges, lemons, guavas, custard apples and passion fruit grow in terraced orchards and are for sale in Funchal's vast covered market or by the side of the road. Walnuts and chestnuts are so abundant they have their own festivals upcountry in summer.

Madeira was unpopulated when it was discovered in 1419 by Portuguese explorer Joao Goncalves Zarco. He had anchored at Porto Santo in a storm, and his sailors seeing Madeira under a cloud on the horizon concluded this was the end of the earth. Zarco returned with a less nervous crew the following year and reached a mountainous densely forested island he named Ilha da Madeira, Island of Wood. He was so taken with the place he stayed on as governor and colonizer. Except for some British occupation during the Napoleonic wars and Spanish sword-rattling, Portugal prevailed.

Like so many volcanic islands, Madeira is speculated to be the top of the mythical Atlantis. Only 36 miles long and 14 miles wide, its mountains rise from 16,500 feet below sea level to 6100 feet above, and 90% of the island is 600 feet or more. The volcanoes are long dormant, but the mild climate keeps the rocky escarpment tooth-sharp. There are waterfalls in the north; the world's second highest sea cliff in the south; and a green facade of rare trees everywhere. This type of primitive forest (the "laurisilva") covered all Europe in the tertiary era only to be decimated by advancing glaciers that never reached this far south. Madeira is the same latitude as Casablanca, a scant 400 miles east.

There are no beaches except on Porto Santo which has five miles of white sand.

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I would be interested in your ideas about the following:
have you as yet looked at the animation at bob sarmast's site of the depiction of the flooding after the break in the Gibraltar straits? It is also interesting that there is now a thought that Plato's translation now might be "before" instead of "beyond".
Additionally, apparently after the break at Gibraltar, the break at the Sicilian land-bridge break came a bit later after volcanic activity and earthquakes. This would have some implications into what the area looked like for some time before the actual flooding of the far eastern mediteranean..

Bob's animation link appears at:
http://www.discoveryofatlantis.com/

under his Project Updates link and at the May 7th update link.

keeping in mind at least these these two points from the Urantia info...

1. "a long narrow peninsulaÖalmost an islandÖprojecting westward from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea."

2a. "About the time of these climatic changes in Africa, England separated from the continent, and Denmark arose from the sea, while the isthmus of Gibraltar, protecting the western basin of the Mediterranean, gave way as the result of an earthquake, quickly raising this inland lake to the level of the Atlantic Ocean.
Presently the Sicilian land bridge submerged, creating one sea of the Mediterranean and connecting it with the Atlantic Ocean. This cataclysm of nature flooded scores of human settlements and occasioned the greatest loss of life by flood in all the world's history.

2b. "four thousand years after Adam left the Garden when, in connection with the violent activity of the surrounding volcanoes and the submergence of the Sicilian land bridge to Africa, the eastern floor of the Mediterranean Sea sank, carrying down beneath the waters the whole of the Edenic peninsula. Concomitant with this vast submergence the coast line of the eastern Mediterranean was greatly elevated. And this
was the end of the most beautiful natural creation...."

I like Bob's book a lot, and wish he were still at this site so we could still discuss things with him. He makes a lot of good points and it's clear he's done a lot of research for it. Unfortunately, when he says that the Atlantic Ocean references were added later to the dialogues, there really isn't any evidence of that. People asked him where his "pillars" were in the thread he started and it didn't seem he had an answer for that either. Also when any researcher says that there were different "Pillars of Hercules," that's wrong, too. Almost all the ancient writers place the Pillars of Hercules where the modern Straits of Gibraltar now are.

Bob also says that the "sinking" had to happen in a time of the ancients' memory and in an area close by the Greeks for them to know about it. That's a good point, but Catastophe also raised some good questions about just when the area of Cyprus he's exploring may have sunk, talking many more years beyond when the Ice Age ended, which is when Atlantis is usually dated.

Again, maybe we're all wrong and not to slight anything he's done, but at this point most things point to the west. Heck, why would it even be called"Atlantis if it weren't out in the Atlantic Ocean..?"

So, in short, I'm sure he'll find something, but I don't think it will be Atlantis. I'm actually not convinced that Atlantis and Eden were the same thing either. The ruins lay someplace out west in the ocean.

traditions, theories, evidence and facts

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Evidence from the floor of the ocean
In a 1954 issue of Geological Society of America, Bulletin, Bruce Heezen and others reported on a seamount - an underwater mountain - that has been named Atlantis by geologists and is in the Atlantic Ocean. It has been found to have been an island about 12,000 years ago - exactly the time specified by Plato! This abstract is given:

The Atlantis, Cruiser, and Great Meteor seamounts rise from a broad ridge or plateau which extends from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge to 37°N. 32°W. southeast to Great Sea mount at 30°N. 28°W. The Atlantis Sea mount, briefly explored 1947 and 1948, was found by echo sounding and submarine photography to have a fairly flat bedrock summit area at about 180 fathoms covered in some cases by current-rippled sand. Its slopes are covered with sand or ooze symmetrically rippled at 400 fathoms and marked by slump features in 570 fathoms. A small piece of volcanic agglomerate was dredged from 400 fathoms on the north slope. About a ton of flat pteropod limestone cobbles was dredged from the summit area. One of the cobbles gave an apparent radiocarbon age of 12,000 years ±900 (J.L. Kulp). The state of lithification of the limestone suggests that it may have been lithified under subaerial [i.e. above water, on land surface] conditions and that the sea mount may have been an island within the past 12,000 years. (Heezen, Bruce C., et al, "Flat-Topped Atlantis, Cruiser, And Great Meteor Sea Mounts" in Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 65:1261, 1954 (Protogonos issue 9))

In later studies, evidence was found for the remnants of a "sunken block of continent" in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. An articlein New Scientist 1975 summarizes the result. (Anonymous, New Scientist,66:540, 1975)

Although they make no such fanciful claim from their results as to have discovered the mythical mid-Atlantic landmass, an international group of oceanographers has now convincingly confirmed preliminary findings that a sunken block of continent lies in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. The discovery comes from analysing dredge samples taken along the line of the Vema offset fault, a long east-west fracture zone lying between Africa and South America close to latitude 11øN.

The article describes the first report of "shallow-water limestone fragments" from the Vema Fracture in the Atlantic:

Four years ago two University of Miami workers, J. Honnorez and E. Bonatti, first reported the recovery of shallow-water limestone fragments from the Vema fracture zone. This limestone contained minerals indicative of a nearby granitic source unlikely to occur on the ocean floor. Neither water currents, nor more esoteric transport systems, could explain the presence of these rocks so far from the modern boundaries of the continents. The two researchers believed that, instead, the granitic grains must have been deposited close to their source.

Then the recent researchers are noted:

Now, with C. Emiliani of Miami, Paul Bronniman of the University of Geneva, M.A. Furrer of Esso Production Research, Begles, and A.A. Meyerhof, a consulting geologist from Tulsa, USA, they have carried out a more searching analysis of the dredge samples (Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 26, p.8)

Finally he notes the evidence for activity in less than 30 meters ofwater, and even some evidence for activity in soil.

The Limestones include traces of shallow-water fossils - foraminifera, green algae, bits of gastropods, and crab coprolites - implying formation in water, in one instance, less than 30 m deep. Furthermore, the limestones have been recrystallized from a high to low-magnesium form of calcite. Oxygen and carbon-isotope ratios prove conclusively that this process must have taken place subaerially [on land surface] "through the action of meteoric water enriched in light carbon while passing through a soil zone ..." A pitted limestone sample bears evidence of tidal action. Some 50 km east of the dredge site along the Vema fracture the team also recovered a thick-shelled, shallow-water, bivalve fossil from a depth of over 2000 m.

The coprolites in the sample indicate a Mesozoic age for the limestone which may well be the sedimentary capping on a residual continental block left behind as the [??] spread out into an ocean. The granitic minerals could thus have come from the bordering continents while the ocean was still in its infancy. Vertical movements made by the block appear to have raised it above sea level at some period during its history.

(from Unknown Earth: A Handbook of Geological Enigmas by William R. Corliss.)
http://www.atlantissource.com/home/forgotten_article.htm

Neither am I, and I think that when people imply this it creates a lot of confusion. There is far more reason to believe that Eden lay in Africa, the Middle East or Asia. Migration largely seems to have moved westward, with the ancient Greek and Egyptian civilizations, among others, likely having their roots in ancient Vedic culture. (http://www.sulekha.com/expressions/articledesc.asp?cid=306520).

But we should keep in mind that the Atlanteans were described as foreigners to these people - not their ancestors! Equating Atlantis with Eden is what prompts many people to place it in one of the other locations, because if Atlantis were Eden, or the cradle of all civilization, it would seem ludicrous to place it in the Atlantic Ocean.

If I am to believe Plato’s words exactly when it comes to the date, size and location of his Atlantis - which I’d prefer to do in spite of keeping an open mind to other theories as well - then I can only assume Atlantis was just one of many civilizations which thrived during ice age. It may have been home to a beautiful land that seemed like paradise by all appearance, but its people eventually rose to great power, sought dominance over the whole world, and were nearly extinguished in a great cataclysm. But I see no reason thus far to believe it was actually Eden.

They presumed that the 3 continents (Europe/Asia/Afric) were separated by "tongues" of the surrounding ocean, which reached into the land.

1. Before I demonstrate data which may affect the location of Atlantis, let me cite these geographers' viewpoint about how Africa and Asia are separated.

quote from: http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol6No1/HV6N1Takahashi.html
70 The Gulf of Aden is in fact the entrance to the Red Sea, but is often counted by Islamic geographers as a separate branch of the Indian Ocean. The usual name in Arabic is al-khalîj al-barbarî derived from Barbarâ/Berbera on its shore, but the name bahr al-barbar is found in Bîrûnî, Tafhîm 122.9 (pers. 168.1 daryâ-i barbar)

2. Likewize, the classical Greek geographers had consistently (and erroneously) claimed that the Caspian Sea was connected to the surrounding ocean on the east side of the Caspian. Thus the Caspian sea separates Asia from Europe.

3. Now once these two geographical
"postulates" are understood, it becomes obvious that those early geographers must have recognized a third "tongue" of the surrounding ocean, to separate the continents of Europe and Asia from each other.

I believe the work of "pseudo-Aristotle" was connected to this outlook. Here is an interesting quotation about the matter, written by one of history's greatest geographers. Please note that the western Mediteranean sea is called "this well-known sea which is called the OCEAN by many."

quote from: http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol6No1/HV6N1Takahashi.html
citing Bar Hebraes:
But., Min. V.i.1: That sea which surrounds the whole earth like a single island is called the Atlantic. In the west a narrow mouth is open to it at the Stelae (STLS), or Pillars, of Hercules. Through it it enters the Habitable World as if into some harbour and forms this well-known sea which is called the Oceanus [sic] by many.17 ... V.i.2.: In the south of this sea there are two gulfs and in them are two islands called the Greater and Lesser Syrtes. In its northern (side) are three gulfs, the Sardinian (SDRWNYQWN cod. F, SRDWNYQWN ceteri), the Galatian (G’L’TYQWN cod. F) and the Adriatic (’DRY’NWS cod. F), and after these a slanting gulf called the Sicilian (SYQYLYQWN).

the corresponding quote from pseudo-Aristotle is:
Cf. De mundo syr. 139.16-21, 139.23-140.1 [< gr. 393a 16-21, 23-28]: That sea which is outside the whole Habitable World is called the Atlantic and the Oceanus. It also flows around us here. Because on the west a narrow mouth (fumo aliso) is open to it from the inside – at what are called the Stelae (STLWS) of Hercules – its flow proceeds into this sea by us, as if into some harbour, and thus widens out little by little here, spreading out until it embraces (lobek < perilambánô) the large gulfs which adjoin each other. … It is said first to widen out to the right after proceeding from the Stelae (ST’LS) of Hercules and is divided into two gulfs and passes the islands called the Syrtes, one of which they call the Greater Syrtes and the other the Lesser Syrtes. On the other, northern, side it does not widen out immediately in the same way, but makes there too three gulfs (cubbin),18 that called the Sardinian (SWRDWNYQWN), that called the Galatian (G’LTYQWN) and the Great Adriatic (’DRY’S rabbo). After these is another slanting gulf which is called the Sicilian (SQYLYQWN).

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"The whole country was said by him to be very lofty and precipitous on the side of the sea, but the country immediately about and surrounding the city was a level plain, itself surrounded by mountains which descended towards the sea; it was smooth and even, and of an oblong shape, extending in one direction three thousand stadia, but across the centre inland it was two thousand stadia. This part of the island looked towards the south, and was sheltered from the north."

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Here is an interview with one of the Russian scientists who visited the Ampere Seamounts in the 1980's. Apparently, they have been there in 1974, 1978, 1984 and 1986. That's a lot of visits, and the information in the article seems to correspond with the recent interest in the area of the ocean just to the east. I read a quote today from Dr. Maxine Asher's website where she also says that there are "four sunken cities in the area just to the west of Gibraltar."

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Searching for the Lost Continent
07/09/2003 16:45

Russian scientist believes, Atlantis lies between Gibraltar and the Azores.
Doctor of Geology and Mineralogy, professor Alexander Gorodnitsky has recently celebrated his 70th birthday.  This is a world-known scientist from the Russian Institute of Oceanology. Alexander Gorodnitsky is also known in Russia as a poet and a song writer.
Alexander Gorodnitsky chaired the laboratory of the marine geophysics at the Arctic Geology Research Institute in Leningrad. He took part in a lot of expeditions in various areas of the World Ocean, he explored the ocean at the depth of five kilometers in underwater vehicles. He was the first scientist in the world to calculate the lithosphere power. The professor published more than 260 scientific works, including eight studies about the geology and geophysics of the ocean floor.

You wrote a song about Atlases, you read books about Atlantis. What is it: a return to the old romantic hobby, or something more serious?

It is probably both. Vyacheslav Kudryavtsev, Director of the Metahistory Institute, believes, there is a mouth of an ancient river on the continental slope to the south-west of the British Isles. Kudryavtsev thinks, an ancient town might have existed on the banks of the river too. He is determined to go there to explore that place. There is no actual evidence to prove that supposition, but a theory says that the Greenland ice melted in the beginning of the historic time, and the Gulf Stream made it to the north. The continent with such a beautiful name - Atlantis - was flooded as a result of the ocean level change. It seemed to be very interesting to me, especially after we came across a strange construction under the water - it looked like the ruins of an ancient city.

We have all necessary equipment at our disposal at the Oceanology Institute: we have underwater probes and vehicles, which allow to submerge to the depth of the ocean. We have already developed the project of the mission, freighted a ship, we have even obtained a permission from the UK. We just need $200,000 for the expedition, but Russian sponsors have refused to help us.
Why breaking a lance - a lot of people believe that there is no Atlantis at all, because there has not been any evidence found to prove the existence of the ancient continent.

The absence of findings is not supposed to be the base to say no to further attempts and works. It simply testifies to the low level of the research. About 15 years ago scientists found a proof that a large ancient civilization used to exist - the huge Hittite Kingdom.

I think that the lost continent is situated somewhere between Gibraltar and the Azores. In 1984 and 1986 our expedition was working on the slopes of Mount Ampere, when we found very strange constructions at the depth of only 100 meters - they looked like rooms and walls. I submerged to see that myself, made some sketches. Other geologists drew alters or walls - that was what they had seen, we could not take any photographs at that time. At first it seemed to me that those rooms and walls had been created by the nature, but the rooms were equal in size. The human psychology is organized very specifically: if someone had said that professor Gorodnitsky found the lost continent, no one would have believed such a message.

Yes, it is true, but there were a lot of other scientists, who were trying to find Atlantis, Jacques Yves Cousteau, for example.
It was Cousteau, who explored the sea floor around Santorin volcano and found the ruins of an ancient state there. A lot of people believed that it was Atlantis. However, such a point of view contradicted to Plato's words, who said that Atlantis was situated on the other side of Pillar of Hercules. From the point of view of the modern geology, I dare to prove that the underwater mountain chain between Gibraltar and the Azores is the lost continent. Canaries and Green Cape islands are the last peaks of Atlantis.
Atlas stands next to Pillar of Hercules, which means that ancient people had reasons for that. Of course, it would be ridiculous to think that we will find a golden statue or ruins of ancient towns. Any expedition has a chance to be a success, because there is always an opportunity to discover something new. If we manage to prove that Europe used to spread far behind the Pyrenees, it will change the perception of the human history. In addition to it, it is a great chance for Russian scientists to discover Atlantis!

Scientists say, the angle of inclination of the axis of the equator is changing, which will eventually make continents collide with each other. The collision will cause a monstrous earthquake, the land will sink under the water, tsunamis will flood practically everything. What is your attitude to such forecasts?

They are nonsense. The stability of continent plates tectonics is determined with endogenous (internal) factors. As far as the Earth's axis is concerned, one may not worry about it for the coming 100,000 years. It will remain as it is now and will not cause an earthquake that would be capable of destroying continents.

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Date:  
2000-12-12

Huge New Hydrothermal Vent System Found On Seafloor; Surprise Discovery Dubbed "Lost City"

A new hydrothermal vent field, which scientists have dubbed "The Lost City," was discovered December 5th on an undersea mountain in the Atlantic Ocean. The unexpected discovery occurred at 30 degrees North on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge during an oceanographic cruise aboard the research vessel Atlantis. A team of scientists from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Duke University, the University of Washington and other institutions conducted the National Science Foundation (NSF)-supported expedition. "We thought that we had seen the entire spectrum of hydrothermal activity on the seafloor, but this major discovery reminds us that the ocean still has much to reveal, "says Margaret Leinen, NSF assistant director for geosciences.

"These structures, which tower 180 feet above the seafloor, are the largest hydrothermal chimneys of their kind ever observed," said Deborah Kelley, a University of Washington geologist and co-principal investigator on the cruise.

"If this vent field was on land, it would be a national park," added Duke University structural geologist Jeff Karson, a second co-principal investigator who, along with Kelly, dove in the submersible Alvin to the site.

Perhaps most surprising is that the venting structures are composed of carbonate minerals and silica, in contrast to most other mid-ocean ridge hot spring deposits which are formed by iron and sulfur-based minerals. The low-temperature hydrothermal fluids may have unusual chemistries because they emanate from mantle rocks.

Nothing like this submarine hydrothermal field has ever been previously observed, say the scientists. These events are unique, they believe, because they rest on one-million-year-old ocean crust formed tens of kilometers beneath the seafloor, and because of their incredible size. Dense macrofaunal communities such as clams, shrimps, mussels, and tube worms, which typify most other mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal environments, appear to be absent in this field.

The Lost City Field was discovered unexpectedly while studying geological and hydrothermal processes that built an unusually tall, 12,000-foot-mountain at this site. In this area, deep mantle rocks called serpentinized peridotites, and rocks crystallized in subseafloor magma chambers, have been uplifted several miles from beneath the seafloor along large faults that expose them at the surface of the mountain.

"As so often happens, we were pursuing one set of questions concerning building of the mountain and we stumbled onto a very important new discovery," said Donna Blackman, a geophysicist from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and chief scientist of the expedition. She added that "the venting towers are very spectacular and, although they bring up a whole new set of questions, we will learn about the evolution of the mountain itself as we study the vents carefully in the future."

Observations using the submersible Alvin and deep-towed Vehicle Argo, operated by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, show that the field hosts numerous active and inactive hydrothermal vents. The steep-sided, 180-foot-tall deposits are composed of multiple spires that reach 30 feet in width at their tops. They are commonly capped by white, feathery hydrothermal precipitates. The tops and sides of the massive edifices are awash in fluids that reach temperatures up to 160 degrees.

From the sides of the structures, abundant arrays of delicate, white flanges emerge. Similar to cave deposits, complex, intergrown stalagmites rise several meters above the flange roofs.

Underneath the flanges, trapped pools of warm fluid support dense mats of microbial communities that wave within the rising fluids. Downslope, hundreds of overlapping flanges form hydrothermal deposits reminiscent of hot spring deposits in Yellowstone National Park. During the Alvin dive, expedition leader Patrick Hickey collected rocks, fluids, and biological samples for shorebased analyses.

"By studying such environments, we may learn about ancient hydrothermal systems and the life that they support," suggested Kelley.

For more photos and graphics, see http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/mar.

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This story has been adapted from a news release issued by National Science Foundation.

Date:  
2003-07-25

Hydrothermal Vent Systems Could Have Persisted Millions Of Years, Incubated Life

The staying power of seafloor hydrothermal vent systems like the bizarre Lost City vent field is one reason they also may have been incubators of Earth's earliest life, scientists report in a paper published in the July 25 issue of Science.

Discovered just 2½ years ago during a National Science Foundation-funded expedition in the mid-Atlantic Ocean, Lost City has the tallest vents ever seen – the 18-story behemoth at the site dwarfs most vents elsewhere by at least 100 feet. Water is circulated through the vent field by heat from serpentinization, a chemical reaction between seawater and the mantle rock on which Lost City sits, rather than by heat from volcanic activity or magma, responsible for driving hydrothermal venting at sites scientists have been studying since the early 1970s.

If hydrothermal venting can occur without volcanism, it greatly increases the places on the seafloor of early Earth where microbial life could have started. It also means explorers may have more places than previously thought to look for microbial life in the universe.

Although the Lost City vent field is a youthful 30,000 years old, Lost City-type systems might be able to persist hundreds of thousands, possibly millions, of years, says lead author Gretchen Früh-Green of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and co-authors from the University of Washington, Duke University and National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration. One can imagine how such stable, long-lived systems pumping out heat, minerals and organic compounds for millennia might improve the chances for life to spark and to be sustained until it could take hold, say these scientists.

"It's difficult to know if life might have started as a result of one or both kinds of venting," says Deborah Kelley, University of Washington oceanographer, "but chances are good that these systems were involved in sustaining life on and within the seafloor very early in Earth's history."

As far as longevity and stability, it's possible that black-smoker systems might last as long as 100,000 years but it's unlikely, Kelley says. That's because black-smoker systems typically form where new seafloor is being created, a process that – even if a volcanic eruption doesn’t bury a hydrothermal vent field in lava – will eventually shove the seafloor bearing the vents away from the source of volcanic heat needed to power them.

Lost City is already nine miles from the nearest volcanically active spreading center and sits on 1.5 million-year-old crust. Seawater permeating deeply into the fractured surface of the mantle rocks transforms olivine into a new mineral, serpentine. The heat generated during this process is not as great as that found at volcanically active sites – where fluids can reach 700 F – but it is enough to power hydrothermal circulation and produce vent fluids of 105 to 170 F.

Tectonics, the movement of the Earth's great plates, contributes to the fracturing of the mantle rock. But a big reason this kind of system is so self-sustaining, the Science report says, is that fracturing also happens because rocks undergoing serpentinization increase in volume 20 percent to 40 percent. Kelley likens it to water seeping into tiny cracks in roads, then freezing and expanding to cause ruts and frost heaves in the pavement.

Scientists think many Lost City-type systems were possible on early Earth because so much of the mantle had yet to be skinned over with crust, putting it in contact with seawater and making serpentinization possible, Kelley says.

Lost City is the only vent field of its kind known today but scientists say more could exist. Within a 60-mile radius of Lost City are three similar mountains and there are other, potential sites along thousands of miles of ridges in the mid-Atlantic, Indian Ocean and Arctic.

Beyond Earth, peridotite – the mantle material that reacts with seawater during serpentinization – is abundant on all the terrestrial planets in our solar system, says Jeff Karson, Duke University professor. "Peridotite can be exposed by tectonic processes or by major cratering events. This means that Lost City-type venting could occur, or has occurred, in oceans on other planets, and such venting would have the potential to support microbial systems."

Lost City-type systems also may be conducive to life because their fluids are high pH and rich with organic compounds compared to black-smoker systems.

Black smokers get their name because it can appear as if smoke is billowing from the vents. What's actually being seen are dark minerals precipitating when scalding hot vent waters meet the icy-cold ocean depths. Water venting at Lost City, in comparison, is hot enough to shimmer but not "smoke." Because of the different chemistry, black-smoker vents are a darkly mottled mix of sulfide minerals whereas the Lost City vents are nearly 100 percent carbonate, the same material as limestone in caves, and range in colors from white to cream to gray.

The field, named Lost City in part because it sits on a seafloor mountain named the Atlantis Massif, was discovered Dec. 4, 2000, when scientists weren't even looking for hydrothermal vents.

"The discovery of the Lost City vent field is a wonderful example of serendipity in science – studying one problem and discovering something totally new and unexpected," says David Epp, program director in NSF's marine geology and geophysics program. "The detailed work is just beginning and should change the way people think about vent systems."

This spring, the NSF funded the first major scientific expedition to Lost City since its discovery. Led by Kelley and Karson, the expedition is documented at: http://www.lostcity.washington.edu/

Other Science co-authors are the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology 's Stefano Bernasconi, University of Washington's Kristin Ludwig and Giora Proskurowski, and National Atmospheric and Oceanic Administration 's David Butterfield.

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The remarkable hydrothermal vent structures serendipitously discovered last December in the mid-Atlantic Ocean, including a massive 18-story vent taller than any seen before, are formed in a very different way than ocean-floor vents studied since the 1970s, according to findings published July 12 in the journal Nature. The circulation of fluids that forms this new class of hydrothermal vents apparently is driven by heat generated when seawater reacts with mantle rocks, not by volcanic heat.

No one has previously seen a field quite like this but Deborah Kelley, a University of Washington oceanographer and lead author of the Nature paper, says this kind of vent may be common on the seafloor. If so, scientists may have underestimated the extent of hydrothermal venting, the amount of heat and chemicals pouring into the world's oceans and the abundance of life that thrives in such conditions.

"Rarely does something like this come along that drives home how much we still have to learn about our own planet," Kelley says. "We need to shed our biases in some sense about what we think we already know."

The Lost City Field, named partly because it sits on the seafloor mountain Atlantis Massif, was discovered Dec. 4. The expedition was funded by the National Science Foundation and led by Scripps Institution of Oceanography's Donna Blackman, UW's Kelley and Duke University's Jeffrey Karson. Blackman and Karson are among the paper's co-authors.

Lost City is like other hydrothermal vent systems where seawater circulates beneath the seafloor gaining heat and chemicals until there is enough heat for the fluids to rise buoyantly and vent back into the ocean. As the warm fluids mix with cold seawater the chemicals separate from the vent fluids and solidify, sometimes piling up into impressive mounds, spires and chimneys of minerals.

It was immediately clear, however, that the Lost City Field was unlike other hydrothermal vent systems in a number of ways. First, there was the height attained by some of the structures – the mighty 180-foot vent scientists named Poseidon compares to previously studied vents that mostly reach 80 feet or less. The new vents are nearly 100 percent carbonate, the same material as limestone in caves, and range in color from a beautiful clean white to cream or gray, in contrast to black smoker vents that are a darkly mottled mix of sulfide minerals. And perhaps the Lost City's most distinctive feature is that it is sitting on 1.5 million-year-old crust formed from mantle material.

"We did not realize that hydrothermal activity of this sort could be taking place on seafloor generated millions of years ago," says Margaret Leinen, assistant director for geosciences at the National Science Foundation.

Most previously known vents form along the youngest part of spreading "centers," areas where tectonic forces pull apart the seafloor and magma flows up into the space sometimes during volcanic eruption. Heat from the underlying magma chambers drives hydrothermal vent circulation and generates water temperatures as high as 400°C.

Lost City is in a part of the ocean where magma chambers are present only rarely and volcanic eruptions happen perhaps every 5,000 to 20,000 years, compared to fast-spreading centers where eruptions may occur every five to 10 years. In the area of the Lost City, spreading and faulting during the last 1 million to 1.5 million years has stripped the mountain down to the underlying mantle rocks. Hydrothermal circulation appears to be driven by seawater that permeates into the deeply fractured surface and transforms olivine in the mantle rocks into a new mineral, serpentine, in a process called serpentinization.

The heat generated during serpentinization appears to drive hydrothermal circulation at the Lost City, Kelley says. The process produces low temperature fluids of 40 to 75°C that are rich in methane and hydrogen.

Papers published in the early 1990s noted that methane-hydrogen signatures were common over slow- or ultra-slow-spreading centers like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where Lost City is. That led scientists to believe that venting was occurring, but there had been no example like the Lost City Field before now, Kelley says.

If the Nature paper is right about the forces driving hydrothermal circulation at the Lost City Field, Kelley says it's easy to imagine there could be many more such systems. Within a mere 50-mile radius of the Atlantis Massif are three similar mountains subject to the same fracturing, the same intrusion of seawater and perhaps the same reactions with mantle material. And those four represent only a tiny fraction of the potential sites along the 6,200 mile Mid-Atlantic Ridge, as well as the Indian ridges and the Arctic Ridge, also considered slow- and ultraslow-spreading centers.

Although large animals that typify other vent environments appear to be rare at Lost City, microbial life seems to thrive there. The microbial samples collected at Lost City show a community that is diverse and so dense in places that magnification reveals rocks so covered with microorganisms that one can't see the minerals, Kelley says. "These environments may host a significant and important amount of microbial life, if these systems prove to be common and operate for long periods on old ocean crust."

Other authors of the paper are Gretchen Fruh-Green of the Institute for Mineralogy and Petrology in Zurich; Pete Rivizzigno of Duke; David Butterfield, Marvin Lilley, Eric Olson, Mathew Schrenk, Kevin Roe and Geoff Lebon, all from the University of Washington or affiliated with the National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration; and the shipboard party on the expedition last December.

Earth's five Oceans

* Atlantic Ocean
* Arctic Ocean
* Indian Ocean
* Pacific Ocean
* Southern Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean is Earth's second-largest ocean, covering approximately one-fifth of its surface. The ocean's name, derived from Greek mythology, means the "Sea of Atlas".

This ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending in a north-south direction and is divided into the North Atlantic and South Atlantic by equatorial counter currents at about 8° north latitude. Bounded by North and South America on the west and Europe and Africa on the east, the Atlantic is linked to the Pacific Ocean by the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Drake Passage on the south. An artificial connection between the Atlantic and Pacific is also provided by the Panama Canal. On the east, the dividing line between the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean is the 20° east meridian. The Atlantic is separated from the Arctic Ocean by a line from Greenland to southernmost Svalbard to northern Norway.

Covering approximately 20% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic Ocean is second only to the Pacific in size. With its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about 106,450,000 km2 (41,100,000 sq. miles); without them, it has an area of 82,362,000 km2 (31,800,000 sq mi). The land area that drains into the Atlantic is four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic Ocean with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000 km3 (85,093,000 cu. miles) and without them 323,600,000 km3 (77,632,000 cu. miles).

The average depth of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,332 m (10,932 ft); without them it is 3,926 m (12,877 ft). The greatest depth, 8,605 m (28,232 ft), is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The width of the Atlantic varies from 2,848 km (1,769 miles) between Brazil and Liberia to about 4,830 km (3,000 miles) between the United States and northern Africa.

The principal feature of the bottom topography of the Atlantic Ocean is a great submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It extends from Iceland in the north to approximately 58° south latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 1,600 km (1,000 miles). A great rift valley also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water over the ridge is less than 2,700 m (8,900 ft) in most places, and several mountain peaks rise above the water, forming islands. The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge.

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large troughs with depths averaging between 3,660 and 5,485 m (12,000 and 18,000 ft). Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins.

The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat, although numerous seamounts and some guyots exist. Several deeps or trenches are also found on the ocean floor. The Puerto Rico Trench, in the North Atlantic, is the deepest. In the south Atlantic, the South Sandwich Trench reaches a depth of 8,428 m (27,651 ft). A third major trench, the Romanche Trench], is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7,760 m (24,455 ft). The shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography. In addition, a number of deep channels cut across the continental rise.

The salinity of the surface waters in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand and varies with latitude and season. Although the minimum salinity values are found just north of the equator, in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers flow intothe ocean. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north latitude. Surface salinity values are influenced by evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, and melting of sea ice.

Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from less than 2° to 29°C (28° to 84° F). Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7 to 8°C (12.6 to 14.4°F).

The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters constitute the surface waters. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The North Atlantic deep water reaches depths of as much as 4,000 m (13,200 ft). The Antarctic bottom water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 m (13,200 ft).

The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the youngest of the world's oceans. Evidence indicates that it did not exist prior to 100 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral supercontinent, Pangaea, were being rafted apart by the process of seafloor spreading. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements were established along its shores. The Vikings, Portuguese, and Christopher Columbus were the most famous among its early explorers. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established. As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the Americas (known as transatlantic trade). Numerous scientific explorations have been undertaken, including those by the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observatory, and the U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office.

The ocean has also contributed significantly to the development and economy of the countries around it. Besides its major "transatlantic" transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves and the world's richest fishing resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major species of fish caught are cod, haddock, hake, herring, and mackerel. The most productive areas include the Grand Banks off Newfoundland, the shelf area off Nova Scotia, Georges Bank off Cape Cod, the Bahama Banks, the waters around Iceland, the Irish Sea, the Dogger bank of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Eel, lobster, and whales have also been taken in great quantities. All these factors, taken together, tremendously enhance the Atlantic's great commercial value. Because of the threats to the ocean environment presented by oil spills, plastic debris, and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea, various international treaties exist to reduce some forms of pollution.

* In 1919, the American NC-4 became the first airplane to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple landings on islands along the way).
* Later in 1919, a British airplane piloted by two men named Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight from Newfoundland to Ireland.
* In 1921, the British were the first to cross the Atlantic in an airship.
* In 1927, Charles Lindbergh made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an airplane (between New York City and Paris).
* After rowing for 81 days and 2,962 miles, on December 3, 1999 Tori Murden became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat alone when she reached Guadeloupe from the Canary Islands.

Location: body of water between Africa, Europe, the Southern Ocean, and the Americas

Geographic coordinates: 0 00 N, 25 00 W

Map references: World

Area:

* total: 76.762 million km2
* note: includes Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, part of the Drake Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, almost all of the Scotia Sea, and other tributary water bodies

Area - comparative: slightly less than 6.5 times the size of the US

Coastline: 111,866 km

surface usually covered with sea ice in Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea from October to June; clockwise warm-water gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the northern Atlantic, counter-clockwise warm-water gyre in the southern Atlantic; the ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin first discovered by the Challenger Expedition.

Elevation extremes

* lowest point: Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench -8,605 m
* highest point: sea level 0 m

Natural resources

oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, precious stones

Natural hazards

icebergs common in Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May; persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September; hurricanes north of the equator (May to December)

Environment – current issues

Endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales; drift net fishing is killing dolphins, albatrosses and other seabirds (petrels, auks), hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes; municipal sludge pollution off eastern US, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea

Geography – note

Major chokepoints include the Dardanelles, Strait of Gibraltar, access to the Panama and Suez Canals; strategic straits include the Strait of Dover, Straits of Florida, Mona Passage, The Sound (Oresund), and Windward Passage; the Equator divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean (previously known as the Ethiopic Ocean). During the Cold War the so called Greenland-Iceland-UK (GIUK) Gap was a major strategic concern, the seabed in that area was laid with extensive hydrophone systems to track Soviet submarines.

Ports and harbours

Alexandria (Egypt), Algiers (Algeria), Antwerp (Belgium), Barcelona (Spain), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Casablanca (Morocco), Colon (Panama), Copenhagen (Denmark), Cork (Republic of Ireland), Dakar (Senegal), Gdansk (Poland), Hamburg (Germany), Halifax, Nova Scotia (Canada), Helsinki (Finland), Las Palmas (Canary Islands, Spain), Le Havre (France), Lisbon (Portugal), Liverpool (UK), London (UK), Marseille (France), Montevideo (Uruguay), Montreal (Canada), Naples (Italy), New Orleans (US), New York (US), Newport News (US) Oran (Algeria), Oslo (Norway), Peiraeus (Greece), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Rotterdam (Netherlands), Saint Petersburg (Russia), Santos (Brazil), Southampton (UK), Stockholm (Sweden)

Transportation – note

Kiel Canal and Saint Lawrence Seaway are two important waterways

External links

* This info from Public Domain.
* See [URL=http://oceanographer.navy.mil/warning.html]http://oceanographer.navy.mil/warning.html Thanks US Navy Oceanographer
* CIA – The World Factbook – Atlantic Ocean (http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/zh.html)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean

A sea (pronounced see) is a large expanse of saline water connected with an ocean. The term is also used for large, usually saline, lakes that lack a natural outlet, such as the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Galilee. The term is used in a less geographically precise manner as synonymous with ocean, as in the tropical sea or down to the sea shore, or even sea water referring to water of the ocean.

Many seas are marginal seas.
Contents [showhide]
1 List of seas, divided by ocean
1.1 Pacific Ocean
1.2 Atlantic Ocean
1.3 Indian Ocean
1.4 Arctic Ocean
1.5 Southern Ocean
1.6 Landlocked seas

List of seas, divided by ocean

Pacific Ocean

* Bering Sea
* Gulf of Alaska
* Sea of Cortez (aka Gulf of California)
* Sea of Okhotsk
* Sea of Japan
* Seto Inland Sea
* East China Sea
* South China Sea
* Sulu Sea
* Celebes Sea
* Bohol Sea (aka Mindanao Sea)
* Philippine Sea
* Flores Sea
* Banda Sea
* Arafura Sea
* Timor Sea
* Tasman Sea
* Yellow Sea
* Coral Sea

Atlantic Ocean

* Hudson Bay

* James Bay

* Baffin Bay
* Gulf of St. Lawrence
* Caribbean Sea
* Gulf of Mexico
* Sargasso Sea
* North Sea
* Baltic Sea

* Gulf of Bothnia

* Irish Sea
* Mediterranean Sea

* Adriatic Sea
* Aegean Sea
* Black Sea

* Sea of Azov

* Ionian Sea
* Ligurian Sea
* Mirtoon Sea
* Tyrrhenian Sea
* Gulf of Sidra
* Sea of Marmara
* Sea of Crete

* Bay of Biscay
* Gulf of Guinea

Indian Ocean

* Red Sea
* Gulf of Aden
* Persian Gulf
* Gulf of Oman
* Arabian Sea
* Bay of Bengal
* Java Sea

[edit]

Arctic Ocean

* Barents Sea
* Kara Sea
* Beaufort Sea

* Amundsen Gulf

* Chukchi Sea
* Laptev Sea
* East Siberian Sea

Southern Ocean

* Weddell Sea
* Ross Sea

Landlocked seas

* Aral Sea
* Caspian Sea
* Dead Sea
* Sea of Galilee

Extraterrestrial seas

Lunar maria are vast basaltic plains on the Moon that were thought to be bodies of water by early astronomers, who referred to them as "seas."

Liquid water is thought to be present under the surface of several moons, most notably Europa.

Liquid hydrocarbons are thought to be present on the surface of Titan, though it may be more accurate to describe them as "lakes" rather than "seas". The distribution of these liquid regions will hopefully be better known after the arrival of the Cassini probe.

Science

The term "sea" has also been used in quantum physics. Dirac sea is an interpretation of the negative energy states that comprises the vacuum.

See also

* ocean, river, geography, firths of Scotland, inlet, sea salt,
* ship, International Maritime Organization

The Azores (or Açores in Portuguese) are an archipelago of Portuguese islands situated in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, about 1,500 km from Lisbon and about 3,900 km from the east coast of North America.

The nine Azorean Islands are extends for more than 600 km, and are guided in the northwest - Southeastern direction. The vast extension of the islands defines an immense exclusive economical zone (EEZ) of 1,1 million squared kilometers. The point more western point of this area, places it 2100 miles of the North American continent.

Even if Portugal is a unitary nation, the Azorean Islands are granted with a autonomous region. Sometimes visitors confuse the islands to be a Portuguese dependency or a country, which is seen has offensive by the locals.
Contents [showhide]
1 History
2 Politics
3 Municipalities
4 Geography
5 Demographics

History

Old map of Azores Islands

In 1427, one of the captains sailing for Henry the Navigator discovered the Azores, possibly Gonçalo Velho, but this is not certain.

Beginning in 1868, Portugal issued its stamps overprinted with "AÇORES" for use in the islands. Between 1892 and 1906, it also issued separate stamps for the three administrative districts of the time.

Angra consisted of Terceira, São Jorge, and Graciosa, with the capital at Angra do Heroismo on Terceira.

Horta consisted of Pico, Faial, Flores, and Corvo, with the capital at Horta on Faial.

Ponta Delgada consisted of São Miguel and Santa Maria, with the capital at Ponta Delgada on São Miguel.

From 1938 to 1978, the archipelago was divided into three districts, quite equivalent (except in area) to those in the Portuguese mainland. The division was quite arbitrary, and didn’t follow the natural island groups, rather reflecting the location of each district capital on the three main cities (neither of each on the western group).

In 1978 the Azores became an Autonomous Region and the Azorean districts (Angra, Horta, Ponta Delgada) were suppressed.

Politics

Flag of Azores

The Azores is a Portuguese Autonomous Region since 1976, the executive section of the autonomy is located in Ponta Delgada, the legislative in Horta and the judicial in Angra do heroísmo. The President of the Azorean Autonomous Region is Carlos Cesar.

Municipalities

The Azores are divided in 19 municipalities (concelhos), each municipality is further divided into parishes(freguesias). The Azores has a total of 156 parishes.

There are also 5 cities: Ponta Delgada and Ribeira Grande in São Miguel Island; Angra do Heroísmo and Praia da Vitória in Terceira, and Horta in Faial.

Santa Maria

* Vila do Porto

São Miguel

* Lagoa, Nordeste, Ponta Delgada, Povoação, Ribeira Grande and Vila Franca do Campo

Terceira

* Angra do Heroísmo and Vila da Praia da Vitória

Graciosa

* Santa Cruz da Graciosa

São Jorge

* Calheta and Velas

Pico

* Lajes do Pico, Madalena and São Roque do Pico

Faial

* Horta

Flores

* Lajes das Flores and Santa Cruz das Flores

Corvo

* Corvo

Geography

Azorean islands by size
island size
(km2) as of 2003
São Miguel Island 744,60
Pico Island 444,80
Terceira Island 400,30
São Jorge Island 243,70
Faial Island 173,10
Flores Island 141,00
Santa Maria Island 96,90
Graciosa Island 60,70
Corvo Island 17,10

The archipelago is spread out in the area of the parallel that passes through Lisbon (39º, 43'/39º, 55' North Latitude), giving it a moderate climate, with mild annual oscillation. The Azores lie in the Palearctic ecozone, forming a unique biome among the world's Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, with many endemic species of plants. The nine islands have a total area of 2,355 km2. Their individual areas vary between 747 km2 (São Miguel) and 17 km2 (Corvo). Three islands (São Miguel, Pico and Terceira) are bigger in size when compared to Malta (compose by three different islands). São Miguel Island alone, being twice has big.

The nine islands are divided into three groups:

* The Eastern Group of São Miguel, Santa Maria and Formigas Islets
* The Central Group of Terceira, Graciosa, São Jorge, Pico and Faial
* The Western Group of Flores and Corvo.

The volcanic origin of all the islands is revealed by their volcanic cones and craters. Pico, a volcano that stands 2,351 metres high on the island of the same name, has the highest altitude in the Azores.

The Azores had a population of 238,767 in 31 December 2002 and a population density of 106 persons/km2.

Demographics

Azorean islands by population
island population
(2002) main
city/town Muncicipalities
São Miguel Island 130,154 Ponta Delgada 6
Terceira Island 54,996 Angra do Heroísmo 2
Pico Island 14,579 Madalena 3
Faial Island 14,934 Horta 1
São Jorge Island 9,522 Velas 2
Santa Maria Island 5,490 Vila do Porto 1
Graciosa Island 4,708 Santa Cruz da Graciosa 1
Flores Island 3,949 Santa Cruz das Flores 2
Corvo Island 435 Vila do Corvo 1

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azores"

The Madeira, a group of Portuguese islands in the north Atlantic Ocean, lies between the paralels of 32º 22' 20'' and 33º 7' 50'' and in a longitude between the 16º 16' 30 W and 17º 16' 39'' W. Madeira Islands consists of two inhabited islands named Madeira and Porto Santo, three uninhabited small islands named collectively the Desertas, and another two uninhabited islands named the Selvagens, Selvagem. Discovered and settled by the Portuguese in 1418, Madeira is a Portuguese autonomous region.
Contents [showhide]
1 Islands and main Islets
2 Geography and climate
3 Culture and people
4 History
5 Postage stamps
6 Transportation
7 External link

Islands and main Islets

* Madeira Island
* Porto Santo Island
* Deserta Grande Island
* Selvagem Grande Island
* Bugio Island
* Selvagem Pequena Island
* Savage's Fora Islet
* Deserta's Chão Islet

Geography and climate

Funchal, the main city of Madeira Island, is on the south coast of the principal island, in 32° 37' 45 N lat. 16° 55' 20 W long. Madeira Islands has 6 cities: Funchal, Porto Santo, Machico, Câmara de Lobos, Santa Cruz and Santana.

The Madeira archipelago lies about 360 miles from the coast of Africa, 535 miles from Lisbon, 240 from Tenerife, and 480 from Santa Maria, the nearest of the Azores.

Madeira is the largest island of the group with 741 km 2, has a length of 30 geographical miles (57 km), an extreme breadth of 13 miles (22 km), and a coastline of 80 or 90 miles. Its longer axis lies east and west, in which direction it is traversed by a mountain chain, the backbone of the island, having a mean altitude of 4000 feet, up to which many deep ravines penetrate from both coasts.

On the south there is very little left of the indigenous forest which once clothed the whole island and gave it the name it bears (Madeira means "wood" in Portuguese), but on the north some of the valleys still contain native trees of fine growth. A long narrow and comparatively low rocky promontory forms the eastern extremity of the island, and here there is to be seen a tract of calcareous sand, known as the Fossil Bed, containg land shells and numerous bodies resembling the roots of trees, probably produced by infiltration.

Its geographical position and its mountainous landscape, permits a very pleasing climate. Tempetures are about 22 degrees Celsius in the summer and circa 16 degrees Celcius during the winter. With Its mild humidity, the weather of the Island is classified has subtropical. Influenced by the Golf Stream, sea water temperature is 22 degrees Celcius during the summer and 16, in the winter. The islands are of vulcanic origin.

The archipelago has a valuable natural areas, recognized by UNESCO has Word Natural Patrimony.

Culture and people

The islands are noted as the source of Madeira wine. The islands are also known by the Portuguese shoes, flowers and sub-tropical fruits.

There are circa 250,000 inhabitants (1991) in the two main islands, only 4,800 live in Porto Santo Island. The population density is 337 inhabitants per square kilometre in Madeira and 112 in Porto Santo. Most of the early settlers were from the Portuguese regions of the Algarve and Minho. The islands have historical monuments, streets and plazas (praças) with many gardens and typical small towns, known has vilas.

History

It has been conjectured, but on insufficient evidence, that the Phoenecians discovered Madeira at a very early period. Pliny mentions certain Purple or Mauretanian Islands, the position of which with reference to the Fortunate Islands or Canaries might seem to indicate Madeira islands. There is a romantic story, of doubtful truth, to the effect that two lovers, Robert Machim and Anna d'Arfet, fleeing from England to France in 1346, were driven off their course by a violent storm, and cast on the coast of Madeira at the place subsequently named Machico, in memory of one of them. On the evidence of a portulano dated 1351, preserved at Florence, Italy, it would appear that Madeira had been discovered long previous to that date by Portuguese vessels under Genoese captains. In 1419 two of the captains of Prince Henry the Navigator, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were driven by a storm to the island called by them Porto Santo, or Holy Port, in gratitude for their rescue from shipwreck. The next year an expedition was sent to populate the island, and, Madeira being descried, they made for it, and took possession on behalf of the Portuguese crown.

The islands started to be settled circa 1432 or 1433. In September 23, 1433, the name ILHA DA MADEIRA (Madeira Island) appears in a map, by the first time, in a document.

In 1921, the Austro-Hungarian Emperor Charles I was deported to Madeira, after an unsuccessful coup d'état. He died there one year later.

Postage stamps

In 1868, Portugal issued postage stamps for Madeira, consisting of the current stamps of Portugal overprinted "MADEIRA". This continued until 1928, when a series for Madeira was issued; but this was the last to be produced until 1980 (stamps of Portugal having been valid in Madeira since 1898), when Portugal began issuing stamps inscribed "Portugal Madeira" that were valid in both Madeira and Portugal, similar to those issued for the Azores.

Transportation

The Islands has two airports, one being in Funchal, Madeira Island and the other in Porto Santo City in Porto Santo Island. Flights to the islands are mostly made from Lisbon, but there are direct flights from other European capitals. The European Union citizens of the Shengen area, can enter in the islands freely. While others need identification. The transportations between the two main islands is done by plane or by ferry-boat, that allow the transportation of vihacles. Visiting the interior of this islands, is today very easy, due to large development of this islands during Portugal's economical boom. There are modern roads, reaching all the interresting areas of the islands, there's also a good transportation network.

External link

* Pictures of Madeira (http://www.sophie.org.uk/Madeira/madeira.htm)
* Natural Park of Madeira (http://www.pnm.pt)

(http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Template:Africa&action=edit) Countries in

Capitals Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
Santa Cruz de Tenerife
Area

 - total

 - % of Spain Ranked 13th

7 447 km2

1,5%
Population

 - Total (2003)
 - % of Spain

 - Density Ranked 8th

1 843 755
4,4%

247,58/km2
Demonym

 - English

 - Spanish

Canary Islander
canario/a

Statute of Autonomy August 16, 1982
ISO 3166-2 ES-CN

Parliamentary
representation

 Congress seats
 Senate seats

14
2
President Adán Martín Menis (CC)
Gobierno de Canarias (http://www.gobcan.es)

The Canary Islands are an archipelago of seven islands of volcanic origin in the Atlantic Ocean, off the northwestern coast of Africa. The islands belong to Spain, and form an autonomous community of that country.
Contents [showhide]
1 Physical geography
2 Political geography
3 History
4 Economy

Physical geography

The islands and their capitals are:

* Gran Canaria (capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria);
* Tenerife (capital Santa Cruz de Tenerife);
* Lanzarote (capital Arrecife);
* La Palma (capital Santa Cruz de La Palma);
* La Gomera (capital San Sebastián de La Gomera);
* El Hierro (capital Valverde);
* Fuerteventura (capital Puerto del Rosario).

The nearest island is 108 km from the northwest African coast.

The islands form the Macaronesia ecoregion with the Azores, Cape Verde, Madeira, and the Savage Isles. The Teide volcano on Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain. According to the position of the islands with respect to the trade winds, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species are conserved, like the drago tree Dracaena draco and the Laurisilva forests.

Four of Spain's 13 national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community:

* Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente on La Palma,
* Parque Nacional Garajonay on La Gomera,
* Parque Nacional del Teide on Tenerife,
* Parque Nacional Timanfaya on Lanzarote.

Political geography

The Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands consists of two provinces, Las Palmas and Santa Cruz de Tenerife, whose capitals (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife) are co-capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands is ruled by a assembly named cabildo insular.

History

The Canary Islands are supposed to have given birth to the Greek myth of the Garden of Hesperides.

The islands were named Canaria (Latin canis, dog) because of the descriptions of the large numbers of wild dogs roaming the islands, first reported by the Roman scholar Pliny. The bird canary was named after the islands. Being initially dominated by , Norman adventurers and Portugal, the islands were finally conquered by Castile towards the end of the 15th century, and the local (possibly Berber) people —called guanches— subsequently diminished in number until their extinction or mixing with the immigrants.

The Canary Islands were first discovered by ancient Greek and Roman seafarers, yet it was not until the early 1400's that anyone made a serious attempt to conquer the Canaries.

In 1402, the French explorer Jean de Béthencourt led an expedition to the islands, landing first on the north side of Lanzarote. From there, he conqured Fuerteventura and Hierro. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands but recognized King Henry III of Castile, who had provided aid during the conquest, as his overlord.

Béthencourt also established a base on the island of Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was truly conquered. The people of Gomera, as well as the Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma people, resisted the Spanish invaders for almost a century.

By 1495, the islands had fallen to Spanish rule. The town of Santa Cruz, on La Palma, became a stopping point for the Spanish conquerors, traders, and missionaries on their way to the New World.

The islands became very wealthy and soon attracted merchants and adventurers from all over Europe. Magnificent palaces and churches were built on La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. Of particular interest to visitors is the Church of El Salvador, one of the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 1500's.

In 1977, 583 people were killed in a major aviation accident known as the Tenerife disaster.

Economy

The economy is based on tourism and tropical agriculture (banana, tobacco) for exportation to Europe and the Americas. They receive about 10 million tourists per year. Ecologists are concerned that the resources, especially in the drier islands, are being overexploited.

The combination of high mountains, belonging to Europe, and clean sky has made the Roque de los Muchachos (in La Palma island) peak a leading placement for telescopes like the Grantecan.

The islands are outside European Union customs territory, though politically within the EU. The ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code IC is reserved for representing them in customs affairs. Goods subject to Spanish customs and excise duties and VAT, such as tobacco or electronic goods, are therefore significantly cheaper in the Canaries. The islands do not have a separate Internet country code from the rest of Spain.

Canarian time is GMT, one hour less than that of mainland Spain and the same as that of London.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Template:Africa&action=edit) Countries in

External links Pictures from the Canary Islands (http://home.worldonline.nl/~hharmsen/)

CANARY ISLANDS/LOUISIANA HISTORICAL INFORMATION: http://www.acadian-cajun.com/canary.htm
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaries

Cape Verde (Portuguese: Cabo Verde) is a republic located on an archipelago of the North Atlantic Ocean, off the western coast of Africa. The previously-uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by the Portuguese in the 15th century; they subsequently became a trading center for African slaves. Most Cape Verdeans descend from both groups.

"Cape Verde" is named for Cap-Vert, now in Senegal, the westernmost point of Africa.
República de Cabo Verde
(In Detail) (Full size)
National motto: Unity, Work, Progress
Official language Portuguese (official) and nine Portuguese creoles
Capital and Largest City Praia
President Pedro Pires
Prime Minister José Maria Neves
Area
 - Total
 - % water Ranked 146th
4,033 km2
Negligible
Population

 - Total (2001)

 - Density Ranked 164th

401,343

101/km2
GDP (PPP)

 - Total

 - GDP/head

600 millions $

1,400 $
Currency CV Escudo
Time zone UTC -1
Independence

 - Declared
(from Portugal)
July 5, 1975
National anthem Cântico da Liberdade
Internet TLD .CV
Calling Code 238
Contents [showhide]
1 History
2 Politics
3 Municipalities
4 Geography
5 Economy
6 Demographics
7 Culture
8 Language
8.1 Creole Links

9 Miscellaneous topics
10 External links and references
[edit]

History

Main article: History of Cape Verde

Cape Verde was uninhabited when the Portuguese arrived in 1456, and the islands were thus made part of the Portuguese empire. Due to its location off the coast of Africa, Cape Verde became an important port, and was a major center of the slave trade.

In 1975, the islands achieved independence, partially due to the efforts of the African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde (PAIGC). After independence, the PAIGC attempted to unite Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau into one nation, the PAIGC controlling both governments, but a coup in the latter nation in 1980 ended these plans. In Cape Verde itself the PAICV (affiliated with the PAIGC) ruled until elections were held in 1991 that resulted in a change of government. The PAICV won back power in 2001.
[edit]

Politics

Main article: Politics of Cape Verde

The government of Cape Verde is based on a Constitution that was established in 1980. Elections are held for both the Prime Minister and President, who both rule for 5-year terms. Members of the General Assembly are elected as well, and they appoint the Supreme Court along with the President and Prime Minister.

See also: President of Cape Verde

Municipalities

Main article: Municipalities of Cape Verde

Cape Verde is divided into 17 municipalities (concelhos, singular - concelho): Boa Vista, Brava, Maio, Mosteiros, Paúl, Praia, Porto Novo, Ribeira Grande, Sal, Santa Catarina, Santa Cruz, São Domingos, São Filipe, São Miguel, São Nicolau, São Vicente, Tarrafal
[edit]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Cape Verde

Cape Verde is an archipelago off the coast of Africa. The volcanic islands that compose the archipelago are small and mountainous. An active volcano exists on one of the islands, Fogo.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Cape Verde

Cape Verde is a small nation with that lacks resources and has experienced severe droughts as well as water shortages. Agriculture is somewhat stymied by lack of rain, and is restricted to only four islands for most of the year. Most of the nation's GDP is from the services industry.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Cape Verde

Most inhabitants of Cape Verde are descendants of the Portuguese who ruled the nation, and African slaves who were often transported from there. Interestingly, more citizens of Cape Verde live abroad than in the nation, and this reflects the poor economy of Cape Verde.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Cape Verde

The culture of Cape Verde reflects its African roots. It is well known for its diverse forms of music, that are reflective of the diverse origins of Cape Verde's residents. Indigenously, the term "Cabo" is used to refer to residents as well as the culture of Cape Verde.

See also: List of writers from Cape Verde

Language

* Official Language: Portuguese
* Mother Tongue: Creole (Crioulo, Criol, Krioulo, Caboverdiano)
* Cape Verde consists of 10 islands, each of the 9 inhabited islands has its own Creole. We can distinguish between two main groups:
* The Sotavento Creoles: Creole of Santiago (Badiu (http://www.priberam.pt/dcvpo/dcvpo.aspx)), Maio, Fogo und Brava (http://www.bcv.cv/_conteudo/dinheiro/nota/1999/2000.htm#).
* The Barlavento Creoles: Creole of São Vicente (Criol de Soncente (http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beispiele_zum_kapverdianischen_Kreol_von_S%E3o_Vicente)), São Nicolau (http://www.terravista.pt/fernoronha/2651/crioulo.html), Sal, Boavista and Santo Antão (http://membres.lycos.fr/pontadosol/pontadosol/presentsite.htm)

Creole Links

* Sergio Frusoni (Creole of São Vicente) (http://www.unb.br/il/liv/public/frusoni.htm)
* Adriano Gominho (Creole of São Nicolau) (http://www.terravista.pt/fernoronha/2651/crioulo.html)
* "Morna aguada" from Eugenio Tavares (Creole of Brava) (http://www.bcv.cv/_conteudo/dinheiro/nota/1999/2000.htm#)
* Extracts from 'OS LUSIDAS' in the creole of Santo Antão (http://www.capeverdeancreoleinstitute.org/lusiadas_na_kriolu.htm)

* Perspective on Capeverdean Crioulo by Robert French (http://www.clubetabanka.com/cv/creole.asp)

Miscellaneous topics

* Communications in Cape Verde
* Transportation in Cape Verde
* Military of Cape Verde
* Foreign relations of Cape Verde
* Community of Portuguese Language Countries
* Public holidays in Cape Verde

External links and references

* Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.
* Embassy of Cape Verde in the United States (http://www.capeverdeusa.org/)
* International Searchengine for Cabo Verde (http://kapverden.nano-web.de/search/search.pl)
* Cape Verde Photogallery (http://kapverden.nano-web.de/gallery)

Edit (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Template:Africa&action=edit) Countries in

Other areas: Canary Islands | Madeira Islands | Mayotte | Réunion | Saint Helena | Western Sahara

Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP)
Angola | Brazil | Cape Verde | East Timor | Guinea-Bissau | Mozambique | Portugal | São Tomé and Príncipe

(http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Template:Africa&action=edit) Portuguese former colonies

Bermuda is a self-governing island Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom, situated in the Atlantic Ocean.

Bermuda
(In Detail) (Full size)
National motto: Quo Fata Ferunt
(Latin: Whither the Fates carry [us])
Official language English
Political status Overseas territory of the UK
Capital Hamilton
Governor and
Commander-in-Chief Sir John Vereker
Premier Alex Scott
Area 58.8 km2
Population

-Total(2003 E)
 - Density

64,482
1 096/km2
Currency Bermuda dollar on par with US dollar
Time zone UTC -4
National anthem God Save the Queen
Internet TLD .BM
Calling Code 1 (Area code 441)

In the early 20th century, as modern transportation and communication systems developed, Bermuda became a popular destination for wealthy US, Canadian, and British tourists. In addition, the tariff enacted by the United States against its trading partners in 1930 cut off Bermuda's once-thriving agricultural export trade--primarily fresh vegetables to the US--spurring the overseas territory to develop its tourist industry, which is second behind international business in terms of economic importance to the island.

During World War II, Bermuda became important as a military base because of its location in the Atlantic Ocean. In 1941, the United States signed a lend-lease agreement with the United Kingdom giving the British surplus U.S. Navy destroyers in exchange for 99-year lease rights to establish naval and air bases in Bermuda. The bases consisted of 5.8 square kilometers (2.25 sq. mi.) of land largely reclaimed from the sea. The US Naval Air Station was on St. David's Island, while the US Naval Air Station Annex was at the western end of the island in the Great Sound.

Effective September 1, 1995, both bases were closed, as were British and Canadian bases on the island. Unresolved issues concerning the 1995 withdrawal of US forces-- primarily related to environmental factors--delayed the formal return of the base lands to the Government of Bermuda. The United States formally returned the base lands in 2002.

There are two incorporated municipalities in Bermuda; the City of Hamilton, and the Town of St George. There are also a number of localities which are sometimes termed villages, among them Flatts and Somerset.

* History of Bermuda
* Geography of Bermuda
* Demographics of Bermuda
* Politics of Bermuda
* Economy of Bermuda
* Communications in Bermuda
* Transportation in Bermuda
* Military of Bermuda
* Bermudian English
* Culture of Bermuda (see also: Music of Bermuda)

Famous Bermudians:

* Clive Best
* Heather Nova

External links

* Envirotalk.org (http://www.envirotalk.org/cgi-bin/iB/ikonboard.cgi) A discussion forum focusing on environmental issues in Bermuda and around the world.
* Bermuda 4U (http://www.bermuda4u.com) - A comprehensive and independent guide to Bermuda
* A Limey In Bermuda (http://www.limeyinbermuda.com) Life in Bermuda from the perspective of a British expat
* Bermuda Online (http://www.bermuda-online.org/) is a privately maintained site which contains much useful material
* Bermuda Online Links (http://www.bermuda-online.org/links.htm) A collection of useful Bermuda-related links
* Insiders Guide to Bermuda (http://www.insiders.com/bermuda/) A good visitor-oriented site

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermuda"
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermuda

The Caribbean or the West Indies is a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. These islands curve southward from the bottom tip of Florida to the Northwest of Venezuela in South America. There are at least 7000 islands, islets, reefs and cayes in the region. They are organized into twenty-five territories including sovereign states, overseas departments and dependencies.

The name "West Indies" originates from Christopher Columbus' idea that he had landed in India when he had in fact reached the Americas. The Caribbean consists of the Antilles and the Bahamas and is part of North America.

At one time there was a short-lived country called the Federation of the West Indies composed of the English-speaking Caribbean islands of the region.

Present-day territories of the Caribbean

* Anguilla (British dependency)
* Antigua and Barbuda

* Antigua
* Barbuda

* Aruba (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
* Bahamas

* Andros
* Cat Island
* Eleuthera
* Grand Bahama
* New Providence, with the capital Nassau.

* Barbados
* British Virgin Islands (British dependency, shares the Virgin Islands with the U.S. Virgin Islands.)
* Cayman Islands (British dependency)

* Cayman Brac
* Grand Cayman, with the capital George Town
* Little Cayman

* Cuba
* Dominica
* Grenada (shares the Grenadines group with Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)

* Petite Martinique
* Carriacou

* Guadeloupe (overseas department of France)

* Basse-Terre
* Grande-Terre
* Iles des Saintes

* Terre de Haut
* Terre de Bas

* Marie-Galante
* Iles de la Petite Terre
* La Désirade
* Saint-Barthélemy, also Saint Barts
* Saint-Martin (part of the island Saint Martin shared with the Netherlands Antilles; note the dash)

* Hispaniola

* Dominican Republic
* Haiti

* Haiti
* Jamaica
* Martinique (overseas department of France)
* Mexico is not a Caribbean country, but has some islands in the Caribbean sea:

* Cancún
* Isla Mujeres
* Isla Cozumel

* Montserrat (British dependency)
* Netherlands Antilles (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)

* Bonaire
* Curaçao
* Saba
* Sint Eustatius
* Sint Maarten (part of the island Saint Martin shared with Guadeloupe)

* Puerto Rico (commonwealth associated with US)
* Saint Kitts and Nevis

* Saint Kitts
* Nevis

* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (shares the Grenadines group with Grenada)

* Bequia
* Canouan Island
* Mustique
* Palm Island
* Saint Vincent
* Union Island
* Young Island

* Suriname
* Trinidad and Tobago

* Tobago
* Trinidad

* Turks and Caicos Islands (British dependency)

* Grand Turk
* Providenciales

Tristan da Cunha is a remote island in the south Atlantic Ocean, at latitude 37°S, longitude 12°W. It is a dependency of St. Helena (United Kingdom), from which it is 2,000 km distant. In 1961, a volcanic eruption on the island resulted in the bulk of the population (a few hundred people) being evacuated to Britain, though most have since returned. It is extremely difficult to access the island, due to both its remoteness and the fact that the island is surrounded by cliffs over 600 metres (2000 feet) high.

Residents of the island are known as Tristanians.
Contents [showhide]
1 Geography
2 Population
3 History of Tristan da Cunha
4 External links

Geography

The name 'Tristan da Cunha' is also used for the archipelago, which consists of

* Tristan da Cunha, proper
* Nightingale Islands
* Inaccessible Island
* the remote Gough Island (also called Diego Alvarez), 350 km away.
* Middle Island
* Stoltenhoff

The main island is quite mountainous; the only flat area contains the town of Edinburgh. The highest point, The Peak (2010 m), is covered by snow in winter.

Tristan da Cunha is a nesting place of Wandering Albatrosses.

Population

There are around 300 inhabitants, all carrying one of seven surnames, though surnames are not used in practice. They speak English and are Anglicans (there are two parishes). There are some health problems because of endogamy, including asthma and glaucoma, largely due to the inevitable marriages among distantly related couples, for example marriages between second degree cousins, that comes with having such a small gene pool. Almost all the inhabitants work for the local government. The islands are largely self-sufficient. A ship arrives every 3 or 4 months with supplies and news from the exterior.

There is no airport, and only a small fishing port.

There is no television, but TV sets are used to watch videotapes, though there is no video rental service. There are no newspapers.

There is one school, one hospital, one post office, one museum, one café, one pub and one swimming pool.

After the age of 16, those who wish to can continue studies in Britain.

As of 2003, there are no permissions for establishment of foreigners.

The archipelago's main source of foreign income is selling stamps to stamp collectors. For this reason, TA and TAA have an exceptional reservation under ISO 3166-1 on behalf of the UPU to represent Tristan da Cunha. Another source of income is the fishing of lobsters for export to Japan and the United States.

History of Tristan da Cunha

The archipelago was discovered in 1506 by a Portuguese mariner, Tristão da Cunha, who named the main island after himself. Ilha de Tristão da Cunha was later anglicised to Tristan da Cunha Island. He was unable to land.

The first survey of the archipelago was made by the French frigate L'Heure du Berger in 1767. Soundings were taken and a rough survey of the coastline was made. The presence of water at the large waterfall of Big Watron and in a lake on the north coast were noted, and the results of the survey were published by a Royal Navy hydrographer in 1781.

The first permanent settler was Jonathan Lambert, from Salem, Massachusetts who arrived at the islands in 1810. He declared the islands his property and named them the Islands of Refreshment. His rule was short lived, as he died in a boating accident in 1812. However, the great wealth he earned selling elephant seal oil to passing ships is supposedly still hidden somewhere on Tristan da Cunha.

In 1815 the British formally annexed the islands, mostly as a measure to ensure that the French couldn't use the islands as a base for a rescue operation to free Napoleon Bonaparte from his prison on St Helena.

To this day, Tristanians remain proud members of the British Commonwealth.

External links

* History (http://www.btinternet.com/~sa_sa/tristan_da_cunha/tristan_history.html)
* Visiting info (http://website.lineone.net/~sthelena/tristaninfo.htm) put together by the former British administrator
* Personal travelogue (http://www.cristytrembly.com/dacunha.html) of a visit to Tristan
* The Longboats (http://www.btinternet.com/~sa_sa/tristan_da_cunha/tristan_longboat.html) of Tristan
* Many photos (http://home.swipnet.se/~w-17282/tristan)
* Many links (http://www.geocities.com/britlink/tristan2.htm)
* General background (http://geowww.gcn.ou.edu/~bweaver/Ascension/tdc.htm), some photos, great bibliography
* an even more complete bibliography (http://www.sthelena.se/miles/List13_Tristan.htm)
* The Tristan Yahoo! Group (http://groups.yahoo.com/group/tristan-da-cunha)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha"

Svalbard, a Norwegian dependency, lies in the Arctic Ocean north of mainland Europe. It consists of a group of islands ranging from 74° to 81° North, and 10° to 34° East; it forms the northernmost part of Norway.
Svalbard
(In Detail)
Motto: None
Official language Norwegian
Capital Longyearbyen
King Harald V
Governor Odd Olsen Ingerø
Area
 - Total Ranked 122th
62,049 km2
Population
 - Total (2002)
 - Density Ranked 230th
2,811
0.04/km2
Independence None (Norwegian dependency)
Currency Norwegian krone
Time zone UTC +1
National anthem Ja, vi elsker dette landet
Internet TLD .NO (.SJ allocated but not used (http://www.norid.no/domenenavnbaser/bv-sj.html))
Calling Code 47
Contents [showhide]
1 History
2 Politics
3 Geography
4 Economics
5 Demographics
6 Culture
7 External links

History

Main article: History of Svalbard

Vikings and/or Russians may have discovered Svalbard as early as the 12th century. Traditional Norse accounts exist of a land known as Svalbard - literally "cold edge". But the Dutchman Willem Barents made the first indisputable discovery of Svalbard in 1596. The islands served as an international whaling base in the 17th and 18th centuries. They also provided the headquarters for many Arctic exploration expeditions. The archipelago was comprehensively geologically mapped by teams from Cambridge and other universities, led primarily by W. Brian Harland from the 1940s to 1980s.

Politics

Main article: Government of Svalbard

By the terms of the Svalbard Treaty of February 9, 1920, international diplomacy recognized Norwegian sovereignty and designated the area as demilitarized. Norway took over administration of Svalbard in 1925. However, under the terms of this unique treaty, citizens of various other countries have rights to exploit mineral deposits and other natural resources "on a footing of absolute equality". As a result, a permanent Russian settlement, more or less autonomous, grew up at Barentsburg. The Russians abandoned another settlement at Pyramiden in 2000. At one time, the Russian (or Soviet) population of Svalbard considerably exceeded the Norwegian population, although this no longer applies.

An appointed Norwegian governor, the sysselmann, based in the town of Longyearbyen, administers the territory.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Svalbard

Svalbard consists of a group of islands in the Arctic Ocean; ranging from 74° to 81° North, and 10° to 34° East, it forms the northernmost part of Norway. The islands cover an area of 62,050 km2. Three large islands dominate: Spitsbergen (39,000 km2), North East Land (14,600 km2) and Edge Island (5,000 km2).

Large parts of Svalbard feature glaciation. Indeed, the name 'Svalbard' means 'cold coast'. However, the North Atlantic Current moderates the Arctic climate, keeping the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year. Svalbard lies north of the Arctic Circle. In Longyearbyen, the midnight sun lasts from April 20 to August 23, and perpetual darkness lasts from October 26 to February 15.

Svalbard also serves as the breeding ground of the barnacle goose and a variety of other birds; best seen from cruise ships. Four mammal species inhabit the archipelago: the Svalbard field mouse Microtus epiroticus, the Arctic fox, the Svalbard reindeer (a distinct sub-species), and polar bears. Since polar bears occur very commonly on Svalbard, all people need to take precautions when outside the settlements: this includes carrying a rifle. Nevertheless, the law protects polar bears, forbidding anyone to harm or disturb them.

Map

Settlements

* Barentsburg (??????????) (Russian settlement)
* Bjørnøya
* Grumant (???????) (Russian settlement, abandoned in 1961, revival of mining operations announced in 2003)
* Isfjord radio
* Longyearbyen
* Ny-Ålesund
* Pyramiden (????????) (Russian settlement, abandoned in 2000)
* Smeerenburg (Dutch settlement, abandoned around 1660)
* Sveagruva

No roads link the settlements on the island; transportation mechanisms include boat, plane, helicopter, and snowmobile.

Economics

Main article: Economics of Svalbard

Economic activity centres on coal mining, supplemented by fishing and trapping. In the final decades of the 20th century, tourism, research, higher education, and some high-tech enterprises like satellite relay-stations have grown significantly. Norway claims an exclusive fishing zone of 200 nautical miles; Russia does not recognize this.

The Svalbard Undersea Cable System which started operation in January 2004 provides dual 1,440 km fiber optic lines from Svalbard to Harstad via Andøy, needed for communicating with polar orbiting satellite stations on Svalbard, some owned by NASA and NOAA.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Svalbard

The population of Svalbard comprises approximately 2,400 (including a large proportion of Russian and Ukrainian citizens).

Culture

Main article: Culture of Svalbard

External links

* Governor of Svalbard (http://www.sysselmannen.svalbard.no/) - Official site

General information on Svalbard (http://go.to/spitsbergen)

* The Svalbard FAQ (http://www.svalbard.com/SvalbardFAQ.html)
* The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 (http://odin.dep.no/jd/engelsk/publ/p10001858/012001-040007/index-ved001-b-f-a.html)
* CIA world factbook on Svalbard (http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sv.html)

* includes images of Svalbard (http://www.spitsbergen.cjb.net)
* Svalbard - A Polar Experience (http://home.online.no/~okleven/)
* Svalbard, The land with gold coasts (http://www.willassen.no/guide/omraader/svalbard/index.en.html)
* The Svalbardsyk Homepage (http://dpwww.epfl.ch/instituts/ipt/berglund/svalbard.html)
* Svalbard Satellite Station website (http://www.svalsat.com/)
* Pulling out of Pyramiden (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/905956.stm)

For other uses, see Greenland (disambiguation).

Greenland (in Greenlandic: Kalaallit Nunaat, literal meaning: "Our Land" and in Danish: Grønland), located in the North Atlantic Ocean, is the world's largest island (Australia is a continent). About 84 percent of its surface is covered by ice.

Greenland was one of the Norwegian Crown colonies until 1814, when it went to Denmark. Greenland became an integral part of the Kingdom of Denmark in 1953. It was granted home rule (hjemmestyre) by the Danish parliament in May 1, 1979. The law went into effect the following year. The Queen of Denmark, Margrethe II, remains as Greenland's Head of state.
Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenlandic)
Grønland (Danish)
(In Detail)
Motto: None
Official languages Kalaallisut, Danish
Capital Nuuk (Godthåb)
Monarch Margrethe II
Prime Minister Hans Enoksen
Area
 - Total
 - % ice Ranked 14th
2,166,086 km2
81.1%
Population
 - Total (2003)
 - Density Ranked 210th
56,385
0.2/km2
Independence None (Danish dependency. Self-governing since 1979.)
Currency Danish krone
Time zone UTC 0 to -4
National anthem  
Internet TLD .GL
Calling Code 299
Contents [showhide]
1 History
2 Politics
3 Geography
4 Economy
5 Demographics
6 Culture
7 Miscellaneous topics
8 See Also
9 References
10 External links

History

Main article: History of Greenland

It is unknown when the native inhabitants of Greenland arrived, or why they decided to settle such a desolate place. Icelandic settlers found the land uninhabited when they arrived at the beginning of the second millennium. They established three settlements near the very south-western tip of the island, where they thrived for the next centuries.

The name Greenland comes from those Scandinavian settlers. In the Viking sagas, it is said that Eiríkur Rau<eth>i (Erik the Red) was exiled from Iceland for murder. He, along with his family and slaves, set out in longships to find the land that was rumoured to be to the north-west. After settling there, he named the land Greenland in order to attract more people to settle there. This proved successful, and the settlements seemed to be getting relatively well along with the new coming Inuit, and a Christian Bishop was sent. In 1386, Greenland became part of the Kalmar Union and later of the double monarchy of Denmark-Norway.

After almost five hundred years, the settlements simply vanished, probably due to famine during the 15th century in the Little Ice Age, when climatic conditions deteriorated. Bones from this late period were found to be in a condition consistent with malnutrition.

Denmark retained possession of the moribund colony at the Treaty of Kiel in 1815.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Greenland

Greenland's unicameral parliament is called Landsting. It has 31 seats and members are elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms. Two representatives are also elected to the Danish Parliament, the Folketing. The government has pledged to hold a referendum on full independence in 2005.

Administratively, the country is parted in three districts, which again include 18 municipalities. The districts are Avannaarsua (Northern Greenland), with one municipality, Tunu (East Greenland) with two and Kitaa (West Greenland) with 15. One military district, Pituffik, is not included among the municipalities.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Greenland

Map of Greenland

The extreme north of Greenland is not covered by an ice cap (indicated as pale blue in the map to the right), because the air there is too dry to produce snow, which is essential in the production and maintenance of an ice cap.

If the Greenland ice cap were to completely melt away, Greenland would most likely be an archipelago instead of an island-continent like Australia.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Greenland

Greenland suffered negative economic growth in the early 1990s, but since 1993 the economy has improved. The Greenland Home Rule Government (GHRG) has pursued a tight fiscal policy since the late 1980s which has helped create surpluses in the public budget and low inflation. Since 1990, Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit following the closure of the last remaining lead and zinc mine in 1990. Greenland today is critically dependent on fishing and fish exports; the shrimp fishery is by far the largest income earner. Despite resumption of several interesting hydrocarbon and minerals exploration activities, it will take several years before production can materialize. Tourism is the only sector offering any near-term potential and even this is limited due to a short season and high costs. The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in Greenland's economy. About half the government revenues come from grants from the Danish Government, an important supplement of GDP.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Greenland

Culture

Main article: Culture of Greenland

Miscellaneous topics

* Communications in Greenland
* Transportation in Greenland
* Military of Greenland
* Foreign relations of Greenland
* List of universities in Greenland

References

* CIA World Factbook 2000

External links

* Greenland Homerule (http://dk.nanoq.gl/) - Official site
* Greenland (http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gl.html) - CIA World Factbook

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland"

For alternative uses, see Iceland (disambiguation).

The Republic of Iceland is an island nation in the northern Atlantic Ocean, located between Greenland and Scotland, northwest of the Faroe Islands.
Ly´<eth>veldi<eth> Ísland
(In Detail)

(SVG Format (http://www.sodipodi.com/clipart/flags/iceland.svg))
(Full size)
National motto: none
Official language None. Icelandic de facto.
Capital Reykjavík
President Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson
Prime Minister Daví<eth> Oddsson
Area
 - Total
 - % water Ranked 104th
103,125 km2
2.7%
Population
 - Total (December 31, 2003)
 - Density Ranked 169th
290,570
2.82/km2
Independence Sovereignty - December 1, 1918
Republic - June 17, 1944
Currency Króna (kr)
Time zone UTC
National anthem Lofsöngur
Internet TLD .IS
Calling Code 354
Table of contents [showhide]
1 History
2 Politics
3 Administrative division
3.1 Municipalities
3.2 Counties
3.3 District Courts
3.4 Constituencies

4 Geography
5 Economy
6 Demographics
7 Culture
7.1 See also

8 Miscellaneous topics
9 External links

History

Main article: History of Iceland

Iceland was first settled by Scandinavians, mainly Norwegians, and Celtic (Scottish and Irish) immigrants during the late 9th and 10th century. It boasts the world's longest running parliament, Al<thorn>ingi, which was established in 930.

Iceland remained independent for over 300 years, and was subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark, formally as a Norwegian crown colony until 1814 when the united kingdoms of Denmark and Norway were separated by the treaty of Kiel, and Iceland was kept by Denmark as a dependency. Limited home rule was granted by the Danish government in 1874, and protectorate like independence and sovereignty over domestic matters followed in 1918, foreign relations and defense remained in the authority of the Danish and the Danish king remained the sovereign of the nation until 1944, when the current republic was founded.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Iceland

Iceland's ancient parliament, Al<thorn>ingi, has been in place since medieval times. It has 63 members, each of whom is elected by the population every four years. The head of government is the prime minister, who together with his cabinet takes care of the executive part of government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after general elections to Al<thorn>ingi, however this process is usually conducted by the leaders of the political parties, who decide what parties will form the cabinet and how the seats are distributed under the condition that it has a majority support in Al<thorn>ingi. Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves in reasonable time does the president exercises this power and appoints the cabinet himself, this has only happened once in the history of the republic. The governments of Iceland have always been coalitions with two or more parties involved since a single political party has never received a majority of seats in Al<thorn>ingi. The president of Iceland is a largely ceremonial office that serves as a diplomat, figurehead and head of state. The extent of the political powers possessed by the office are disputed by legal scholars in Iceland, several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers but other provisions and traditions seem to suggest otherwise.

The president is elected every four years (last 2004), the cabinet is elected every four years (last 2003) and town council elections are held every four years too (last 2002).

Related topics:

* List of political parties in Iceland
* Prime minister of Iceland
* President of Iceland

Administrative division

Municipalities

Main article: Municipalities of Iceland

There are 104 municipalities in Iceland that govern most local matters like schools, transportation and zoning.

Counties

Main article: Counties of Iceland

The 23 counties are mostly a historic division. Today Iceland is split up between 26 Magistrates that are the highest authority over the local police (except in Reykjavík where there is a special office of police commissioner) and carry out administrative functions such as declaring bankruptcy and marrying people outside of the church.

District Courts

Iceland is split up into eight district court jurisdictions. According to a United Nations document on Iceland:

The Law on the Separation of Judicial and Executive Powers at the District Level No. 92/1989 laid the foundation for a changed judicial system. The law established eight district courts, one in each electoral area of the country. These courts have jurisdiction in civil as well as criminal cases, issue bankruptcy decisions and resolve disputes which arise during magistrates' major proceedings. Judicial authorities also resolve all disputes concerning the extent of administrative powers. After 1 July 1992 district court judges perform only judicial functions. The judicial authority previously wielded by magistrates outside Reykjavik has now been transferred to the new district courts.

List of District Courts

1. Reykjavík District Court
2. Reykjanes District Court
3. West District Court
4. Westfjords District Court
5. Northwest District Court
6. Northeast District Court
7. East District Court
8. South District Court

Constituencies

Main article: Constituencies of Iceland

Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliament elections were the same as the district court jurisdictions but by an amendment to the constitution they were changed so that today there are only 6 constituencies. The change was made in order to balance the weight of different districts of the country since a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area, the imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system but it still exists.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Iceland & List of settlements in Iceland

Iceland is located on a geological hot spot on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It has many active volcanoes, notably the Hekla, and around 10% of the island is glaciated. Iceland has many geysers (itself an Icelandic word) and the widespread availability of geothermal power means residents of most towns have hot water and home heat for a low price. (See also: Volcanoes of Iceland) Electricity is generally very cheap because of the many rivers and waterfalls which are also used for the generation of electrical power. (See also: Rivers of Iceland, Waterfalls of Iceland, Lakes of Iceland)

The island itself has many fjords along the coastline, where also most cities are situated, because the island's interior, the Highlands of Iceland are an uninhabitable desert. The main towns are the capital Reykjavík, Keflavík, where the national airport is situated, and Akureyri. The island of Grímsey, on the Arctic Circle contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland.(See also: Fjords of Iceland)

Unlike neighbouring Greenland, Iceland is considered to be a part of Europe, not of America. The island is the world's 18th largest island.

The island has four national parks: Jökulsárgljúfur National Park, Skaftafell National Park, Snæfellsnes National Park and <THORN>ingvellir.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Iceland

The economy depends heavily on the fishing industry, which provides over 60% of export earnings and employs 8% of the work force. In the absence of other natural resources (except for abundant hydro-electric and geothermal power), Iceland's economy is vulnerable to changing world fish prices. The economy remains sensitive to declining fish stocks as well as to drops in world prices for its main exports: fish and fish products, aluminum, and ferrosilicon.

The only natural resource conversion is the manufacture of cement. Most buildings are concrete with expensive imported wood used only sparingly and where necessary.

The center-right government plans to continue its policies of reducing the budget and current account deficits, limiting foreign borrowing, containing inflation, revising agricultural and fishing policies, diversifying the economy, and privatizing state-owned industries. The government remains opposed to EU membership, primarily because of Icelanders' concern about losing control over their fishing resources.

Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, and new developments in software production, biotechnology, and financial services are taking place. The tourism sector is also expanding, with the recent trends in ecotourism and whale-watching. Growth has slowed between 2000 and 2002, but is expected to pick up in 2003.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Iceland

The isolated location of Iceland has resulted in limited immigration and limited genetic inflow in its human population over hundreds of years. The resulting genetic similarity is being exploited today for genetic studies.

The language spoken is Icelandic, a Scandinavian language, and the religion is predominantly Lutheran.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Iceland

Some famous Icelanders include pop singer Björk; avant-garde rock band Sigur Rós; and novelist Halldór Laxness, winner of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1955.
[edit]

See also

* Music of Iceland
* List of Icelandic authors
* Artists of Iceland

* List of Icelanders
* Communications in Iceland
* Geothermal power in Iceland
* Transportation in Iceland
* Military of Iceland
* Foreign relations of Iceland
* Stamps and postal history of Iceland
* Naming conventions of Iceland
* List of universities in Iceland
* Icelandic nationalism
* Reporters without borders worldwide press freedom index 2002: rank 1 out of 139 countries (4 way tie)

External links

* Picture gallery from www.islandsmyndir.is (http://www.islandsmyndir.is)
* Official gateway to Iceland and the Icelandic Foreign Service. (http://www.iceland.org/)
* Information about Al<thorn>ingi (Parliament) (http://www.althingi.is/vefur/upplens.html)
* The Trade Council of Iceland (http://www.icetrade.is/english/default.htm)
* Physics Department of Icelandic Meteological Office (includes earthquake list_ (http://hraun.vedur.is/ja/englishweb/index.html) (in English and Icelandic)
* Travel information from the Public Roads Administration (http://www.vegagerdin.is/vefur2.nsf/pages/english.html) (in English and Icelandic)
* Volcanoes in Iceland (http://volcano.und.edu/)
* Air quality in Iceland (http://english.ust.is/of-interest/airquality/)
* University of Iceland (Reykjavik) (http://www2.hi.is/page/hi_is_english_frontpage)
* Reykjavik University (http://www.ru.is/template7.asp?PageID=507)
* Íslenska - Magazine for Icelandic language and culture (http://www.islenska.de)

Location of Rockall

Rockall is a small, rocky island in the North Atlantic but is probably better known as one of the British Sea Areas. Its status is disputed, being claimed by the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Denmark and Iceland. By itself, the island does not have much importance, but the seas around it are considered very valuable. Therefore, it is also an important question whether Rockall is considered habitable. If so, its owner can claim 200 nautical miles of exclusive economic zone; if not, the claim can go no further than Rockall's territorial waters.

The origin of the name is debatable but it has been suggested that it derives from the Gaelic "Sgeir (http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/MB2/mb33.html#sgeir) Rocail (http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/MB2/mb31.html#rocail)" which is often translated as "Roaring Rock" although "rocail" is more usually translated as "tearing" or "ripping" (see link).

The rock is the summit of an extinct volcano and is located at 57°35'48"N 13°41'19"W, about 480 km (300 miles) west of Manish Point, North Uist in Scotland. The rock is about 83 feet (25 metres) wide at its base and rises sheer to a height of approximately 22 metres (72 feet). It is regularly washed over by large storm waves, particularly in winter. There is a small ledge of 3.5 metres by 1.3 metres (11 feet by 4 feet), known as Hall's Ledge, 4 metres (13 feet) from the summit. The rock's only permanent inhabitants are periwinkles and other marine molluscs. Small numbers of seabirds, mainly Fulmars, Gannets, Kittiwakes, and Guillemots, use the rock for resting in summer, and Gannets and Guillemots occasionally breed successfully if the summer is calm with no storm waves washing over the rock.

The earliest recorded human landing on the island was in 1810; the next was not until 1888. On 18 September 1955 the island was officially annexed by Britain when Lieutenant Commander Desmond Scott RN from HMS Vidal was deposited on the island by a Royal Navy helicopter. He cemented in a brass plaque and hoisted the Union Jack to stake the British claim. On 10 February 1972 the Isle of Rockall Act received Royal Assent to make the island part of Inverness-shire, fully incorporating it into the United Kingdom. A navigational beacon was later installed on the island and Britain declared that no ship would be allowed within a 50-mile radius of the rock. In 1985 former SAS member and survival expert Tom Mclean lived on the island for 40 days to affirm Britain's right to the island.

Greenpeace occupied the islet for a short time in 1997, calling it Waveland, to protest against oil exploration. The project continued until 1999, when the company sponsoring it collapsed and the experiment ended.

Rockall is also close to the Darwin Mounds, deep-water coral mounds about 185 km (115 miles) north-west of Cape Wrath.

Reference

* Birds breeding on Rockall. British Birds 86: 16-17, 320-321 (1993).

External links

* Greenpeace press release (http://www.greenpeace.org/majordomo/index-press-releases/1997/msg00182.html)
* "Official" Waveland site (http://www.waveland.org/)
* The Rockall Times (http://www.therockalltimes.co.uk/) Surreal news site with a Rockall theme

------------------------------------------------------------------------

* An Irish/Celtic band, "The House Band", has an album called Rockall, named after the place.
* Rockall is also the name of the land where Anthony Swithin's series "The Perilous Quest for Lyonesse" takes place.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockall"