The Library at Alexandria

From Cosmos, Carl Sagan:

Only once before in our history was there the promise of a brilliant scientific civilization. Beneficiary of the Ionian Awakening, it had its citadel at the Library of Alexandria, where 2,000 years ago the best minds of antiquity established the foundations for the systematic study of mathematics, physics, biology, astronomy, literature, geography and medicine. We build on those foundations still. The Library was constructed and supported by the Ptolemys, the Greek kings who inherited the Egyptian portion of the empire of Alexander the Great. From the time of its creation in the third century B.C. until its destruction seven centuries later, it was the brain and heart of the ancient world.

Alexandria was the publishing capital of the planet. Of course, there were no printing presses then. Books were expensive; every one of them was copied by hand. The Library was the repository of the most accurate copies in the world. The art of critical editing was invented there. The Old Testament comes down to us mainly from the Greek translations made in the Alexandrian Library. The Ptolemys devoted much of their enormous wealth to the acquisition of every Greek book, as well as works from Africa, Persia, India, Israel and other parts of the world. Ptolemy III Euergetes wished to borrow from Athens the original manuscripts or official state copies of the great ancient tragedies of Sophocles, Aeschylus and Euripides. To the Athenians, these were a kind of cultural patrimony -- something like the original handwritten copies and first folios of Shakespeare might be in England. They were reluctant to let the manuscripts out of their hands even for a moment Only after Ptolemy guaranteed their return with an enormous cash deposit did they agree to lend the plays. But Ptolemy valued those scrolls more than gold or silver. He forfeited the deposit gladly and enshrined, as well he might, the originals in the Library. The outraged Athenians had to content themselves with the copies that Ptolemy, only a little shamefacedly, presented to them. Rarely has a state so avidly supported the pursuit of knowledge.

The Ptolemys did not merely collect established knowledge; they encouraged and financed scientific research and so generated new knowledge. The results were amazing: Eratosthenes accurately calculated the size of the Earth, mapped it, and argued that India could be reached by sailing westward from Spain. Hipparchus anticipated that stars come into being, slowly move during the course of centuries, and eventually perish; it was he who first catalogued the positions and magnitudes of the stars to detect such changes. Euclid produced a textbook on geometry from which humans learned for twenty-three centuries, a work that was to help awaken the scientific interest of Kepler, Newton and Einstein. Galen wrote basic works on healing and anatomy which dominated medicine until the Renaissance. There were, as we have noted, many others.

Alexandria was the greatest city the Western world had ever seen. People of all nations came there to live, to trade, to learn. On any given day, its harbors were thronged with merchants, scholars and tourists. This was a city where Greeks, Egyptians, Arabs, Syrians, Hebrews, Persians, Nubians, Phoenicians, Italians, Gauls and Iberians exchanged merchandise and ideas. It is probably here that the word cosmopolitan realized its true meaning -- citizen, not just of a nation, but of the Cosmos. To be a citizen of the Cosmos...

Here clearly were the seeds of the modern world. What prevented them from taking root and flourishing? Why instead did the West slumber through a thousand years of darkness until Columbus and Copernicus and their contemporaries rediscovered the work done in Alexandria? I cannot give you a simple answer. But I do know this: there is no record, in the entire history of the Library, that any of its illustrious scientists and scholars ever seriously challenged the political, economic and religious assumptions of their society. The permanence of the stars was questioned; the justice of slavery was not. Science and learning in general were the preserve of a privileged few. The vast population of the city had not the vaguest notion of the great discoveries taking place within the Library. New findings were not explained or popularized. The research benefited them little. Discoveries in mechanics and steam technology were applied mainly to the perfection of weapons, the encouragement of superstition, the amusement of kings. The scientists never grasped the potential of machines to free people. The great intellectual achievements of antiquity had few immediate practical applications. Science never captured the imagination of the multitude. There was no counterbalance to stagnation, to pessimism, to the most abject surrenders to mysticism. When, at long last, the mob came to burn the Library down, there was nobody to stop them.

The last scientist who worked in the Library was a mathematician, astronomer, physicist and the head of the Neoplatonic school of philosophy -- an extraordinary range of accomplishments for any individual in any age. Her name was Hypatia. She was born in Alexandria in 370. At a time when women had few options and were treated as property, Hypatia moved freely and unselfconsciously through traditional male domains. By all accounts she was a great beauty. She had many suitors but rejected all offers of marriage. The Alexandria of Hypatia's time -- by then long under Roman rule -- was a city under grave strain. Slavery had sapped classical civilization of its vitality. The growing Christian Church was consolidating its power and attempting to eradicate pagan influence and culture. Hypatia stood at the epicenter of these mighty social forces. Cyril, the Archbishop of Alexandria, despised her because of her close friendship with the Roman governor, and because she was a symbol of learning and science, which were largely identified by the early Church with paganism In great personal danger, she continued to teach and publish, until, in the year 415, on her way to work she was set upon by a fanatical mob of Cyril's parishioners. They dragged her from her chariot, tore off her clothes, and armed with abalone shells, flayed her flesh from her bones. Her remains were burned, her works obliterated, her name forgotten. Cyril was made a saint.

The glory of the Alexandrian Library is a dim memory. Its last remnants were destroyed soon after Hypatia's death. It was as if the entire civilization had undergone some self-inflicted brain surgery, and most of its memories, discoveries, ideas and passions were extinguished irrevocably. The loss was incalculable. In some cases, we know only the tantalizing titles of the works that were destroyed. In most cases, we know neither the titles nor the authors. We do know that of the 123 plays of Sophocles in the Library, only seven survived. One of those seven is Oedipus Rex. Similar numbers apply to the works of Aeschylus and Euripides. It is a little as if the only surviving works of a man named William Shakespeare were Coriolanus and A Winter's Tale, but we had heard that he had written certain other plays, unknown to us but apparently prized in his time, works entitled Hamlet, Macbeth, Julius Caesar, King Lear, Romeo and Juliet.

What happened to the Library's half-million scrolls? Accounts of the details vary; this is taken from The Vanished Library by Luciano Canfora:

The books were distributed to the public baths of Alexandria, where they were used to feed the stoves which kept the baths so comfortably warm. Ibn al-Kifti writes that 'the number of baths was well known, but I have forgotten it' (we have Euty****s's word that there were in fact four thousand). 'They say,' continues Ibn al-Kifti, 'that it took six months to burn all that mass of material.'

Aristotle's books were the only ones spared.

The loss of the ancient world's single greatest archive of knowledge, the Library of Alexandria, has been lamented for ages. But how and why it was lost is still a mystery. The mystery exists not for lack of suspects but from an excess of them.

Alexandria was founded in Egypt by Alexandria the Great. His successor as Pharaoh, Ptolomy II Soter, founded the Museum or Royal Library of Alexandria in 283 BC. The Museum was a shrine of the Muses modeled after the Lyceum of Aristotle in Athens. The Museum was a place of study which included lecture areas, gardens, a zoo, and shrines for each of the nine muses as well as the Library itself. It has been estimated that at one time the Library of Alexandria held over half a million documents from Assyria, Greece, Persia, Egypt, India and many other nations. Over 100 scholars lived at the Museum full time to perform research, write, lecture or translate and copy documents. The library was so large it actually had another branch or "daughter" library at the Temple of Serapis.

The first person blamed for the destruction of the Library is none other than Julius Caesar himself. In 48 BC, Caesar was pursuing Pompey into Egypt when he was suddenly cut off by an Egyptian fleet at Alexandria. Greatly outnumbered and in enemy territory, Caesar ordered the ships in the harbor to be set on fire. The fire spread and destroyed the Egyptian fleet. Unfortunately, it also burned down part of the city - the area where the great Library stood. Caesar wrote of starting the fire in the harbor but neglected to mention the burning of the Library. Such an omission proves little since he was not in the habit of including unflattering facts while writing his own history. But Caesar was not without public detractors. If he was solely to blame for the disappearance of the Library it is very likely significant documentation on the affair would exist today.

The second story of the Library's destruction is more popular, thanks primarily to Edward Gibbon's "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". But the story is also a tad more complex. Theophilus was Patriarch of Alexandria from 385 to 412 AD. During his reign the Temple of Serapis was converted into a Christian Church (probably around 391 AD) and it is likely that many documents were destroyed then. The Temple of Serapis was estimated to hold about ten percent of the overall Library of Alexandria's holdings. After his death, his nephew Cyril became Patriarch. Shortly after that, riots broke out when Hierax, a Christian monk, was publicly killed by order of Orestes the city Prefect. Orestes was said to be under the influence of Hypatia, a female philosopher and daughter of the "last member of the Library of Alexandria". Although it should be noted that some count Hypatia herself as the last Head Librarian.

Alexandria had long been known for it's violent and volatile politics. Christians, Jews and Pagans all lived together in the city. One ancient writer claimed that there was no people who loved a fight more than those of Alexandria. Immediately after the death of Hierax a group of Jews who had helped instigate his killing lured more Christians into the street at night by proclaiming that the Church was on fire. When the Christians rushed out the largely Jewish mob slew many of them. After this there was mass havoc as Christians retaliated against both the Jews and the Pagans - one of which was Hypatia. The story varies slightly depending upon who tells it but she was taken by the Christians, dragged through the streets and murdered.

Some regard the death of Hypatia as the final destruction of the Library. Others blame Theophilus for destroying the last of the scrolls when he razed the Temple of Serapis prior to making it a Christian church. Still others have confused both incidents and blamed Theophilus for simultaneously murdering Hypatia and destroying the Library though it is obvious Theophilus died sometime prior to Hypatia.

The final individual to get blamed for the destruction is the Moslem Caliph Omar. In 640 AD the Moslems took the city of Alexandria. Upon learning of "a great library containing all the knowledge of the world" the conquering general supposedly asked Caliph Omar for instructions. The Caliph has been quoted as saying of the Library's holdings, "they will either contradict the Koran, in which case they are heresy, or they will agree with it, so they are superfluous." So, allegedly, all the texts were destroyed by using them as tinder for the bathhouses of the city. Even then it was said to have taken six months to burn all the documents. But these details, from the Caliph's quote to the incredulous six months it supposedly took to burn all the books, weren't written down until 300 years after the fact. These facts condemning Omar were written by Bishop Gregory Bar Hebræus, a Christian who spent a great deal of time writing about Moslem atrocities without much historical documentation.

So who did burn the Library of Alexandria? Unfortunately most of the writers from Plutarch (who apparently blamed Caesar) to Edward Gibbons (a staunch atheist or deist who liked very much to blame Christians and blamed Theophilus) to Bishop Gregory (who was particularly anti-Moslem, blamed Omar) all had an axe to grind and consequently must be seen as biased. Probably everyone mentioned above had some hand in destroying some part of the Library's holdings. The collection may have ebbed and flowed as some documents were destroyed and others were added. For instance, Mark Antony was supposed to have given Cleopatra over 200,000 scrolls for the Library long after Julius Caesar is accused of burning it.

It is also quite likely that even if the Museum was destroyed with the main library the outlying "daughter" library at the Temple of Serapis continued on. Many writers seem to equate the Library of Alexandria with the Library of Serapis although technically they were in two different parts of the city.

The real tragedy of course is not the uncertainty of knowing who to blame for the Library's destruction but that so much of ancient history, literature and learning was lost forever.

I agree with you that the library at Alexandria is much older than our current concept of history. It didn't just pop up out of nowhere.

I remember hearing years ago that the other "Great Library" (University) of the time was in Scotland and that many great families of the Mediterranean area sent their sons all the way up there to be educated.

Lets hope that much is true!

Rockessence, I have heard about another library in the north, but it's another one of those things where I can't remember the source off hand. What else do you know about it?

Here is an interesting link on ancient technology. I'm quoting the part that concerns the Library of Alexandria, but the rest of the link is definitely worth checking out:
http://www.akri.org/museum/ancient.htm

An International Repository : The Great Library at Alexandria

The Great Library at Alexandria was the first recorded attempt at making a collection of all the world's
recorded knowledge. Records report that it was connected to the Mouseion, or Museum, the "Temple of the
Muses" which an academy of learned men dedicated to preservation, copying, cataloguing of knowledge.

The Great Library probably contained a lot of the knowledge of Ancient Egypt that was then taken to be
Greek. It also contained works from the Jewish, Babylonian and Zoroastrian and the newly emergent Roman
traditions. It probably housed about 40,000 publically available works out of a possible 5 million.

It was founded by the Pharaoh Ptolemy I Soter around 300 BCE and was greatly embellished by Ptolemy II
Philadelphus who gave it the mission of procuring a copy of every book that existed. Ptolemy III Euregetes
wrote to all the world's sovereigns asking to borrow their books in order to copy them. The Greeks lent him the
texts to Euripides, Aeschylus and Sophocles; he copied them, kept the originals and sent the copies back. In
doing so he forfeited the rich deposit he had laid down but he had the originals. Any ships that came into
Alexandria were searched for books and the same copying and return procedure was inflicted. Works were not
accepted as originals without rigorous textual criticism and comparison to other copies of the same work. In
this way scribal mistakes could be routed out.

Demetrius of Phaleron was the 1st recorded librarian at Alexandria between 290 - 282 BCE. Demetrius began
the translation of many works into Greek, his first job was the translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew
into Greek for which the Library hired 72 rabbis.

Kallimachos of Kyrene was the most famous librarian, implementing a subject index or Pinakes divided into 8
major subject categories; Oratory, History, Laws, Philosophy, Medicine, Lyric Poetry, Tragedy and Miscellany.
Some fragments of the Pinakes remain showing details of authors life, works and number of lines in each
work.

Destruction

There are records of the library's existence until around 300 CE although there are three main stories of it's
destruction before this date.

Julius Caesar

The library caught fire when Julius Caesar set fire to the Ptolemaic fleet in 48 BCE. However there are records
of the library functioning after this date.

Amr Ibn el-As

Took Alexandria for the Persian caliph Omar whose instructions have been recorded as:

"As for the books you mention, here is my reply. If their content is in accordance with the book of Allah,
we may do without them, for in that case the book of Allah more than suffices. If on the other hand,
they contain matter not in accordance with the book of Allah, there can be no need to preserve these.
Proceed, then, and destroy them."

The books were then allegedly taken to the public baths where they were burnt in the stoves that heated the
water. This took 6 months.

However, it has been argued that by the time the Arabs got to Alexandria the Library had already declined to a
shadow of it's former self and the logistics of burning so much parchment (which apparently doesn't burn very
well) were fairly infeasible.

Theophilus

Patriarch of Alexandria and patron saint of Arsonists. Said to have razed the Library around 391 AD in an
attempt to destroy symbols of paganism and get everyone to be a Christian.

Reading between the lines of the different accounts of the destruction of the library it would seem that it fell
into disrepair over the 600 or so years that it was in existence and was also subject to several major
catastrophes. As the coastline of Alexandria has changed so radically, it's position is now on the sea floor.

Yes, my source is Cayce. Here is the reading that comes to mind:

quote:

---

315-4
Before that we find the entity was in the land that has been called the Atlantean, during those periods when there was the breaking up of the land and there had been the edict that the land must be changed.
The entity was among those that set sail for the Egyptian land, but entered rather into the Pyrenees and what is now the Portuguese, French and Spanish land. And there STILL may be seen in the chalk cliffs there in Calais [Galice?] the activities, where the marks of the entity's followers were made, as the attempts were set with those to create a temple activity to the follower of the law of One.

Then in the name Apex-l [Apex-el?], the entity lost and gained. Lost during those periods when there were the turmoils and strife that brought about the necessity for the sojourning from the land and the entering into the others.

Gained when there was the establishing of the associations with those that had built up the Egyptian land. And, as will be seen from those that may yet be found about Alexandria, the entity may be said to have been the first to begin the establishement of the library of knowledge in Alexandria; ten thousand three hundred before the Prince of Peace entered Egypt for His first initiation there. For, read ye, "He was crucified also in Egypt." [Rev. 11:8]

---

Cayce also had a few comments about the destruction, which I will try to locate.

I enjoyed the site that piece is from. This quote is from a few paragraphs preceding earlier:

"Since those first excavations in Egypt, conventional Egyptology has helped to revise the Renaissance model and for almost a century that model has managed to accommodate the role of the Egyptians in the history of Knowledge. There are some however that The question that remains unanswered by Egyptology is that of how a civilisation so relatively technically advanced as the Eyptians could suddenly appear out of nowhere at such an early time in human development."

Then Tom offers:

"And, as will be seen from those that may yet be found about Alexandria, the entity may be said to have been the first to begin the establishement of the library of knowledge in Alexandria; ten thousand three hundred before the Prince of Peace entered Egypt for His first initiation there."

That would be 12,300 years before present. How does this align with all of you on the accepted timing of "Atlantis" being the progenitor of Egypt?

The Royal Library of Alexandria was once the largest in the Mediterranean world. It is usually assumed to have been founded at the beginning of the 3rd century BC during the reign of Ptolemy II of Egypt after his father had set up the Temple of the Muses or Museum. The initial organization is attributed to Demetrius Phalereus. The Library is estimated to have stored at its peak 400,000 to 700,000 scrolls. A new library was inaugurated in 2003 near the site of the old library.
Table of contents
1 Overview
2 Destruction of the Great Library
2.1 Evidence for the existence of the Library after Caesar
2.2 Destruction of the pagan temples by Theophilus
2.3 Conclusions

3 Other libraries of the ancient world
4 References

Overview

One story holds that the Library was seeded with Aristotle's own private collection, through one of his students, Demetrius Phalereus. Another concerns how its collection grew so large. By decree of Ptolemy III of Egypt, all visitors to the city were required to surrender all books and scrolls in their possession; these writings were then swiftly copied by official scribes. The originals were put into the Library, and the copies were delivered to the previous owners. While encroaching on the rights of the traveler or merchant, it also helped to create a reservoir of books in the relatively new city.

The Library's contents were likely distributed over several buildings, with the main library either located directly attached to or close to the oldest building, the Museum, and a daughter library in the younger Serapeum, also a temple dedicated to the God Serapis. Edward Parsons provides the following description of the main library based on the existing historical records:

A reconstruction of the main hall of the Museum of Alexandria used in the series Cosmos by Carl Sagan. The wall portraits show Alexander the Great (left) and Serapis.

In this reconstruction, the doors from the Museum lead to storage rooms for the Library. Most of the books were probably stored in armaria, closed, labeled cupboards that were still used for book storage in medieval times.

A covered marble colonnade connected the Museum with an adjacent stately building, also in white marble and stone, architecturally harmonious, indeed forming an integral part of the vast pile, dedicated to learning by the wisdom of the first Ptolemy in following the advice and genius of Demetrios of Phaleron. This was the famous Library of Alexandria, the "Mother" library of the Museum, the Alexandriana, truly the foremost wonder of the ancient world. Here in ten great Halls, whose ample walls were lined with spacious armaria, numbered and titled, were housed the myriad manuscripts containing the wisdom, knowledge, and information, accumulated by the genius of the Hellenic peoples. Each of the ten Halls was assigned to a separate department of learning embracing the assumed ten divisions of Hellenic knowledge as may have been found in the Catalogue of Callimachus of Greek Literature in the Alexandrian Library, the farfamed Pinakes. The Halls were used by the scholars for general research, although there were smaller separate rooms for individuals or groups engaged in special studies.

In 2004 a Polish-Egyptian team claimed to have discovered part of the library while excavating in the Bruchion region. The archaeologists claimed to have found thirteen "lecture halls", each with a central podium. Zahi Hawass, president of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities said that all together, the rooms uncovered so far could have seated 5000 students.

To commemorate the ancient library, the government of Egypt has built a major library and museum complex at Alexandria, called the Bibliotheca Alexandrina(website (http://www.bibalex.gov.eg)).

Destruction of the Great Library

One of the reasons so little is known about the Library is that it was lost centuries after its creation. All that is left of many of the volumes are tantalizing titles that hint at all the history lost from the building's destruction. Few events in ancient history are as controversial as the destruction of the Library, as the historical record is both contradictory and incomplete. Not surprisingly, the Great Library became a symbol for knowledge itself, and its destruction was attributed to those who were portrayed as ignorant barbarians, often for purely political reasons.

Much of the debate rests on a different understanding of what constituted the actual Library. Large parts of the Library were likely decentralized, so it is appropriate to also speak of the "Alexandrian libraries". Both the Serapeum, a temple and daughter library, and the Museum itself existed until about 400 CE. Only if one believes the Museum to be distinct from the Great Library, an event of destruction prior to that point becomes plausible.

One account of such an event of destruction concerns Julius Caesar. During his invasion of Alexandria in 47–48 BCE, Caesar set the enemy fleet in the harbor on fire. Some historians believe that this fire spread into the city and destroyed the entire library. While this interpretation is now a minority view, it is based on several ancient sources, all of which were written at least about 150 years after the destruction supposedly took place. Edward Parsons has analyzed the Caesar theory in his book The Alexandrian Library and summarizes the sources as follows:

A final summary is interesting: of the 16 writers, 10, Caesar himself, the author of the Alexandrian War, Cicero, Strabo, Livy (as far as we know), Lucan, Florus, Suetonius, Appian, and even Athenaeus apparently knew nothing of the burning of the Museum, of the Library, or of Books during Caesar's visit to Egypt; and 6 tell of the incident as follows:

1. Seneca (AD 49), the first writer to mention it (and that nearly 100 years after the alleged event), definitely says that 40,000 books were burned.

2. Plutarch (c. 117) says that the fire destroyed the great Library.

3. Aulus Gellius (123 - 169) says that during the "sack" of Alexandria 700,000 volumes were all burned.

4. Dio Cassius (155 - 235) says that storehouses containing grain and books were burned, and that these books were of great number and excellence.

5. Ammianus Marcellinus (390) says that in the "sack" of the city 70,000 volumes were burned.

6. Orosius (c. 415), the last writer, singularly confirms Seneca as to number and the thing destroyed: 40,000 books.

Of all the sources, Plutarch is the only one to refer explicitly to the destruction of the Library. Plutarch was also the first writer to refer to Caesar by name. Ammianus Marcellinus' account seems to be directly based on Aulus Gellius because the wording is almost the same.

The majority of ancient historians, even those strongly politically opposed to Caesar, give no account of the alleged massive disaster. Cecile Orru argued in "Antike Bibliotheken" (2002, edited by Wolfgang Höpfner) that Caesar cannot have destroyed the Library because it was located in the royal quarter of the city, where Caesar's troops were fortified after the fire (which would not have been possible if the fire had spread to that location).

Furthermore, the Library was a very large stone building and the scrolls were stored away in armaria (and some of them put in capsules), so it is hard to see how a fire in the harbor could have affected a significant part of its contents. Lastly, modern archaeological finds have confirmed an extensive ancient water supply network which covered the major parts of the city, including, of course, the royal quarter.

The destruction of the library is attributed by some historians to a period of civil war in the late 3rd century CE -- but we know that the Museum, which was adjacent to the library, survived until the 4th century. There are also allegations dating to medieval times that claim that Caliph Omar, during an invasion in the 7th century, ordered the Library to be destroyed, but these claims are generally regarded as a Christian attack on Muslims, and include many indications of fabrication, such as the claim that the contents of the Library took six months to burn in Alexandria's public baths.

Evidence for the existence of the Library after Caesar

As noted above, it is generally accepted that the Museum of Alexandria existed until ca. 400 CE, and if the Museum and the Library are considered to be largely identical or attached to one another, earlier accounts of destruction could only concern a small number of books stored elsewhere. This is consistent with the number given by Seneca, much smaller than the overall volume of books in the Library. So under this interpretation it is plausible that, for example, books stored in a warehouse near the harbor were accidentally destroyed by Caesar, and that larger numbers cited in some works have to be considered unreliable -- misinterpretations by the medieval monks who preserved these works through the Middle Ages, or deliberate forgeries.

Inscription referring to the Alexandrian library, dated 56 CE

Even if one considers the Museum and the Library to be very much separate, there is considerable evidence that the Library continued to exist after the alleged destruction. Plutarch, who claimed the Great Library was destroyed (150 years after the alleged incident), in Life of Antony describes the later transfer of the second largest library to Alexandria by Mark Antony as a gift to Cleopatra. He quotes Calvisius as claiming "that [Mark Antony] had given her the library of Pergamus, containing two hundred thousand distinct volumes", although he himself finds Calvisius' claims hard to believe. In "Einführung in die Überlieferungsgeschichte" (1994, p. 39), Egert Pöhlmann cites further expansions of the Alexandrian libraries by Augustus (in the year 12 CE) and Claudius (41-54 CE). Even if the most extreme allegations against Caesar were true, this raises the question of what happened to these volumes.

The continued existence of the Library is also supported by an ancient inscription found in the early 20th century, dedicated to Tiberius Claudius Balbillus of Rome (d. 56 CE). As noted in the "Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft" (Georg Leyh, Wiesbaden 1955):

"We have to understand the office which Ti. Claudius Balbillus held [...], which included the title 'supra Museum et ab Alexandrina bibliotheca', to have combined the direction of the Museum with that of the united libraries, as an academy."

Athenaeus (c. 200 CE) wrote in detail in the Deipnosophistai about the wealth of Ptolemy II (309-246 BC) and the type and number of his ships. When it came to the Library and Museum, he wrote: "Why should I now have to point to the books, the establishment of libraries and the collection in the Museum, when this is in every man's memory?" Given the context of his statement, and the fact that the Museum still existed at the time, it is clear that Athenaeus cannot have referred to any event of destruction -- he considered both facilities to be so famous that it was not necessary for him to describe them in detail. We must therefore conclude that at least some of the Alexandrian libraries were still in operation at the time.

Destruction of the pagan temples by Theophilus

In the late 4th century, persecution of pagans by Christians had reached new levels of intensity. Temples and statues were destroyed throughout the Roman empire, pagan rituals forbidden under punishment of death, and libraries closed. In 391 CE, Emperor Theodosius ordered the destruction of all pagan temples, and the bishop of Alexandria, Theophilus, complied with this request. Socrates Scholasticus provides the following account of the destruction of the temples in Alexandria:

5th century scroll which illustrates the destruction of the Serapeum by Theophilus (source: Christopher Haas: Alexandria in late antiquity, Baltimore 1997)

"Demolition of the Idolatrous Temples at Alexandria, and the Consequent Conflict between the Pagans and Christians."

"At the solicitation of Theophilus bishop of Alexandria the emperor issued an order at this time for the demolition of the heathen temples in that city; commanding also that it should be put in execution under the direction of Theophilus. Seizing this opportunity, Theophilus exerted himself to the utmost to expose the pagan mysteries to contempt. And to begin with, he caused the Mithreum to be cleaned out, and exhibited to public view the tokens of its bloody mysteries. Then he destroyed the Serapeum, and the bloody rights of the Mithreum he publicly caricatured; the Serapeum also he showed full of extravagant superstitions, and he had the phalli of Priapus carried through the midst of the forum. [...] Thus this disturbance having been terminated, the governor of Alexandria, and the commander-in-chief of the troops in Egypt, assisted Theophilus in demolishing the heathen temples. These were therefore razed to the ground, and the images of their gods molten into pots and other convenient utensils for the use of the Alexandrian church; for the emperor had instructed Theophilus to distribute them for the relief of the poor. All the images were accordingly broken to pieces, except one statue of the god before mentioned, which Theophilus preserved and set up in a public place; `Lest,' said he, `at a future time the heathens should deny that they had ever worshiped such gods.'"

The Serapeum housed part of the Library, but it is not known how many books were contained in it at the time of destruction. Notably, Paulus Orosius admitted in his History against the pagans: "[T]oday there exist in temples book chests which we ourselves have seen, and, when these temples were plundered, these, we are told, were emptied by our own men in our time, which, indeed, is a true statement." This indicates that any books that existed in the Serapeum at the time were destroyed when it was razed to the ground.

As for the Museum, Mostafa El-Abbadi writes in Life and Fate of the ancient Library of Alexandria (Paris 1992):

"The Mouseion, being at the same time a 'shrine of the Muses', enjoyed a degree of sanctity as long as other pagan temples remained unmolested. Synesius of Cyrene, who studied under Hypatia at the end of the fourth century, saw the Mouseion and described the images of the philosophers in it. We have no later reference to its existence in the fifth century. As Theon, the distinguished mathematician and father of Hypatia, herself a renowned scholar, was the last recorded scholar-member (c. 380), it is likely that the Mouseion did not long survive the promulgation of Theodosius' decree in 391 to destroy all pagan temples in the City."

Conclusions

There is a growing consensus among historians that the Library of Alexandria likely suffered from several destructive events, but that the destruction of Alexandria's pagan temples in the late 4th century was probably the most severe and final one. The evidence for that destruction is the most definitive and secure. Caesar's invasion may well have led to the loss of some 40,000-70,000 scrolls in a warehouse adjacent to the port (as Luciano Canfora argues, they were likely copies produced by the Library intended for export), but it is unlikely to have affected the Library or Museum, given that there is ample evidence that both existed later.

Civil wars, decreasing investments in maintenance and acquisition of new scrolls and generally declining interest in non-religious pursuits likely contributed to a reduction in the body of material available in the Library, especially in the fourth century. The Serapeum was certainly destroyed by Theophilus in 391, and the Museum and Library may have fallen victim to the same campaign.

If indeed a Christian mob was responsible for the destruction of the Library, the question remains why Plutarch casually referred to the destruction of "the great library" by Caesar in his Life of Caesar. It is important to note that most surviving ancient works, including Plutarch, were copied throughout the Middle Ages by Christian monks. During this copying process, errors have sometimes been made, and some have argued that deliberate forgery is not out of the question, especially for politically sensitive issues. Other explanations are certainly possible, and the fate of the Library will continue to be the subject of much heated historical debate.
[edit]

Other libraries of the ancient world

* The library of King Ashurbanipal, in Nineveh— Considered to be "the first systematically collected library", it was rediscovered in the 19th century. While the library had been destroyed, many fragments of the ancient cuneiform tables survived, and have been reconstructed. Large portions of the Epic of Gilgagmesh were among the many finds.

* The Villa of the Papyrii, in Herculaneum— One of the largest libraries of ancient Rome. Thought to have been destroyed in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Rediscovered in 1752, the contents of the library were found to have been carbonized. Using modern techniques, the scrolls are currently being meticulously unrolled, and the writing deciphered.

References

* Luciano Canfora: The Vanished Library. A Wonder of the Ancient World, trans. Martin Ryle. University of California Press. Berkeley, 1989 ISBN 0-520-07255-3
* Mostafa El-Abbadi: Life and fate of the ancient Library of Alexandria. Paris: UNESCO, 1992 (second, revised edition) ISBN 92-3-102632-1
* Paulus Orosius: The seven books of history against the pagans. Translated by Roy J. Deferrari. The Catholic University of America, Washington 1964.
* Edward Parsons: The Alexandrian Library. London, 1952. Relevant online excerpt (http://www.humanist.de/rome/alexandria/alex2.html).

External links

* Ellen N. Brundige: "The Library of Alexandria" (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/GreekScience/Students/Ellen/Museum.html)
* James Hannam: "The Mysterious Fate of the Great Library of Alexandria" (http://www.bede.org.uk/library.htm) and "The Foundation and Loss of the Royal and Serapeum Libraries of Alexandria" (http://www.bede.org.uk/Library2.htm). Hannam, "a member of the Christian Cadre of internet apologists", analyzes the destruction of the Library and concludes that Caesar is most likely to be responsible.
* Bibliotheca Alexandrina (http://www.bibalex.org/)

Plato is not the only source of the Atlantis story either. There were other scholars of the Classical Period who also considered Atlantis something worth studying/recording. The only name I can think about at the moment is Homer, in His Illiad.

"This is the oldest university ever found in the world," Grzegory Majderek, head of the Polish mission, told The Associated Press.

The lecture halls, with a capacity of 5,000 students, are part of the 5th century university, which functioned until the 7th century, according to a statement from Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities.

"This is the first material evidence of the existence of academic life in Alexandria," Majderek said. Knowledge of earlier intellectual pursuits in the Mediterranean coastal city came through historical and literary documents and materials.

Ancient Alexandria was home to a library, which was founded about 295 B.C. and burned to the ground in the 4th century. Ruins were never found, but Alexandria was an intellectual center where scholars are thought to have produced the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament, and edited Homer's works.

The auditoriums were found near the portico of the Roman Theater in the eastern part of the ancient city.

All the lecture halls are of identical dimensions. Each contains rows of stepped benches in a form of semicircle and an elevated seat apparently for the lecturer, the Antiquities Department statement said.

Alexandria has tried to recapture some of its intellectual glory, building a $230 million library on the city's renovated seaside promenade with help from around the world.

The new library, which opened in 2002, contains about 240,000 books, a planetarium, conference hall, five research institutes, six galleries and three museums.
http://www.cnn.com/2004/TECH/science/05/26/egypt.university.discovery.ap/index.html

Rockessence, it seems unlikely that another ancient library also existed in Scotland, at least in the same time as Alexandria, do you have any more information about it?

Tom, I would be interested also in hearing
the Edgar Cayce reading dealing with the library (libraries) when you locate it, if only to compare it with what we already know of the Library of Alexandria.

quote:

"In 2004 a Polish-Egyptian team claimed to have discovered part of the library while excavating in the Bruchion region. The archaeologists claimed to have found thirteen "lecture halls", each with a central podium. Zahi Hawass, president of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities said that all together, the rooms uncovered so far could have seated 5000 students."

This might well be Alexandria. I wish that the article would have been more specific about the location. This should have been given more press, if it's true! I am skeptical at the moment, though, until I hear more information. At least the names mentioned in the article are reputable ones (somewhat anyway).

Dhill, Helios & Docyabut, interesting contributions. I especially liked the sourcing on your article, Helios.

quote:

---

I have a friend who is going to study to be an archeologist...and according to him, some archeologists theorize that the Library of Alexandria wasn't in Alexandria at all! ...That being said, it's possible we might one day find the TRUE library, and find even greater riches...

---

I think this attitude probably springs from Clive Cussler's book "Treasure." It has inspired lots of people to think maybe a part of the library exists somewhere, much like "Atlantis, the Antediluvian World," by Ignatius Donnelly has inspired so many people to look for evidence of Atlantis. True, Cussler's book was a novel wheras Donnelly says, "That the description of this island given by Plato is not, as has been long supposed, fable, but veritable history."

But who knows, really? I'd love for it to be true, especially if we could find the lost works of Archimedes. Wouldn't that just Rock?!

Sorry, you have to buy the Cussler book!

The only facts that seem to be up for dispute is how it was actually destroyed, and by whom.

Quote (from Helios' material, see above):

1. Seneca (AD 49), the first writer to mention it (and that nearly 100 years after the alleged event), definitely says that 40,000 books were burned.

2. Plutarch (c. 117) says that the fire destroyed the great Library.

3. Aulus Gellius (123 - 169) says that during the "sack" of Alexandria 700,000 volumes were all burned.

4. Dio Cassius (155 - 235) says that storehouses containing grain and books were burned, and that these books were of great number and excellence.

5. Ammianus Marcellinus (390) says that in the "sack" of the city 70,000 volumes were burned.

6. Orosius (c. 415), the last writer, singularly confirms Seneca as to number and the thing destroyed: 40,000 books.

Of all the sources, Plutarch is the only one to refer explicitly to the destruction of the Library. Plutarch was also the first writer to refer to Caesar by name. Ammianus Marcellinus' account seems to be directly based on Aulus Gellius because the wording is almost the same.

quote:

---

Of all the sources, Plutarch is the only one to refer explicitly to the destruction of the Library

---

So you believe it may actually still exist? Or at least the works thereof? Like I said, that would be very cool.

The only other thing was rather squirrelly: That when the Library at Alexandria burned, there were those who were relieved that there still remained the one in the North....Who knows?

To repeat my original question:

"I remember hearing years ago that the other "Great Library" (University) of the time was in Scotland and that many great families of the Mediterranean area sent their sons all the way up there to be educated.

Anybody else hear anything on this?"

"3. AT ALEXANDRIA

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê It had been an eventful visit at Caesarea, and when the boat was ready, Jesus and his two friends departed at noon one day for Alexandria in Egypt.

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê The three enjoyed a most pleasant passage to Alexandria. Ganid was delighted with the voyage and kept Jesus busy answering questions. As they approached the city's harbor, the young man was thrilled by the great lighthouse of Pharos, located on the island which Alexander had joined by a mole to the mainland, thus creating two magnificent harbors and thereby making Alexandria the maritime commercial crossroads of Africa, Asia, and Europe. This great lighthouse was one of the seven wonders of the world and was the forerunner of all subsequent lighthouses. They arose early in the morning to view this splendid lifesaving device of man, and amidst the exclamations of Ganid Jesus said: "And you, my son, will be like this lighthouse when you return to India, even after your father is laid to rest; you will become like the light of life to those who sit about you in darkness, showing all who so desire the way to reach the harbor of salvation in safety." And as Ganid squeezed Jesus' hand, he said, "I will."

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê And again we remark that the early teachers of the Christian religion made a great mistake when they so exclusively turned their attention to the western civilization of the Roman world. The teachings of Jesus, as they were held by the Mesopotamian believers of the first century, would have been readily received by the various groups of Asiatic religionists.

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê By the fourth hour after landing they were settled near the eastern end of the long and broad avenue, one hundred feet wide and five miles long, which stretched on out to the western limits of this city of one million people. After the first survey of the city's chief attractionsÖuniversity (museum), library, the royal mausoleum of Alexander, the palace, temple of Neptune, theater, and gymnasiumÖGonod addressed himself to business while Jesus and Ganid went to the library, the greatest in the world. Here were assembled nearly a million manuscripts from all the civilized world: Greece, Rome, Palestine, Parthia, India, China, and even Japan. In this library Ganid saw the largest collection of Indian literature in all the world; and they spent some time here each day throughout their stay in Alexandria. Jesus told Ganid about the translation of the Hebrew scriptures into Greek at this place. And they discussed again and again all the religions of the world, Jesus endeavoring to point out to this young mind the truth in each, always adding: "But Yahweh is the God developed from the revelations of Melchizedek and the covenant of Abraham. The Jews were the offspring of Abraham and subsequently occupied the very land wherein Melchizedek had lived and taught, and from which he sent teachers to all the world; and their religion eventually portrayed a clearer recognition of the Lord God of Israel as the Universal Father in heaven than any other world religion."

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê Under Jesus' direction Ganid made a collection of the teachings of all those religions of the world which recognized a Universal Deity, even though they might also give more or less recognition to subordinate deities. After much discussion Jesus and Ganid decided that the Romans had no real God in their religion, that their religion was hardly more than emperor worship. The Greeks,
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they concluded, had a philosophy but hardly a religion with a personal God. The mystery cults they discarded because of the confusion of their multiplicity, and because their varied concepts of Deity seemed to be derived from other and older religions.

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê Although these translations were made at Alexandria, Ganid did not finally arrange these selections and add his own personal conclusions until near the end of their sojourn in Rome. He was much surprised to discover that the best of the authors of the world's sacred literature all more or less clearly recognized the existence of an eternal God and were much in agreement with regard to his character and his relationship with mortal man.

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê Jesus and Ganid spent much time in the museum during their stay in Alexandria. This museum was not a collection of rare objects but rather a university of fine art, science, and literature. Learned professors here gave daily lectures, and in those times this was the intellectual center of the Occidental world. Day by day Jesus interpreted the lectures to Ganid; one day during the second week the young man exclaimed: "Teacher Joshua, you know more than these professors; you should stand up and tell them the great things you have told me; they are befogged by much thinking. I shall speak to my father and have him arrange it." Jesus smiled, saying: "You are an admiring pupil, but these teachers are not minded that you and I should instruct them. The pride of unspiritualized learning is a treacherous thing in human experience. The true teacher maintains his intellectual integrity by ever remaining a learner."

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê Alexandria was the city of the blended culture of the Occident and next to Rome the largest and most magnificent in the world. Here was located the largest Jewish synagogue in the world, the seat of government of the Alexandria Sanhedrin, the seventy ruling elders.

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê Among the many men with whom Gonod transacted business was a certain Jewish banker, Alexander, whose brother, Philo, was a famous religious philosopher of that time. Philo was engaged in the laudable but exceedingly difficult task of harmonizing Greek philosophy and Hebrew theology. Ganid and Jesus talked much about Philo's teachings and expected to attend some of his lectures, but throughout their stay at Alexandria this famous Hellenistic Jew lay sick abed.

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê Jesus commended to Ganid much in the Greek philosophy and the Stoic doctrines, but he impressed upon the lad the truth that these systems of belief, like the indefinite teachings of some of his own people, were religions only in the sense that they led men to find God and enjoy a living experience in knowing the Eternal.

4. DISCOURSE ON REALITY

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê The night before they left Alexandria Ganid and Jesus had a long visit with one of the government professors at the university who lectured on the teachings of Plato. Jesus interpreted for the learned Greek teacher but injected no teaching of his own in refutation of the Greek philosophy. Gonod was away on business that evening; so, after the professor had departed, the teacher and his pupil had a long and heart-to-heart talk about Plato's doctrines. While Jesus gave qualified approval of some of the Greek teachings which had to do with the theory that the material things of the world are shadowy reflections of invisible but more substantial spiritual realities, he sought to lay a more trustworthy foundation
for the lad's thinking; so he began a long dissertation concerning the nature of reality in the universe. In substance and in modern phraseology Jesus said to Ganid:

Ê Ê Ê Ê Ê The source of universe reality is".......
http://www.urantia.com/cgi-bin/webglimpse/mfs/usr/local/www/data/papers?link=http://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper130.html&file=/usr/local/www/data/papers/paper130.html&line=81#mfs

7. SHINTO

Only recently had the manuscripts of this Far-Eastern religion been lodged in the Alexandrian library. It was the one world religion of which Ganid had never heard. This belief also contained remnants of the earlier Melchizedek teachings as is shown by the following abstracts:
http://www.urantia.com/cgi-bin/webglimpse/mfs/usr/local/www/data/papers?link=http://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper131.html&file=/usr/local/www/data/papers/paper131.html&line=130#mf s

Aside from Jesus, Paul of Tarsus and Philo of Alexandria were the greatest teachers of this era. Their concepts of religion have played a dominant part in the evolution of that faith which bears the name of Christ.

******

Rodan of Alexandria
http://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper160.html
http://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper161.html

enjoy.....

The Cayce readings lend support to many of the ideas that have been expressed here so far. The readings especially support the idea the the library had multiple locations and that different groups contributing to the destruction at different time periods.

This reading was for a woman who had lived a life in ancient Egypt.

quote:

---

31-1
In the one before this in the period when the entity was as the recorder of conditions then in the land now known as Egypt. The entity then the historian, the writer of the day, and many of those writings as made by the entity were destroyed in the Memphis and Alexandrian libraries; yet some may yet be found in those casements in the pyramid [not] yet uncovered. In that period the entity gave most to the peoples through the ability to coordinate the teachings of the land and the teachings of those in power. Even when the division arose, the entity able to record the actions of each division without showing favor or partiality in either division. Hence the entity was accorded a place of power, position, during that period, by the ruler and by the seer and by him who was ruled as of power in the beginning of this rule. In the name Aassa. The entity gained through this experience, and hence that innate desire to write of such as was experienced often creeps in when the entity least desires same to do so; yet, as given, were the entity to write along these lines the greater success would come to the entity through these channels, for from THIS experience - with that attained in Mercurian forces, as is weighed with the influence of love and Jupiterian - power, glory, honor, bigness of all applicable forces brings the abilities to the entity in the present.

---

This reading was for a man who also lived in ancient Egypt. It emphasizes the unique significance of this library and suggests that Alexandria was origially called Deosho.

quote:

---

412-5
In the one then before this we find in that experience when there were divisions in the land now known as the Egyptian, land in those periods when there were the reconstruction of those lands and the dividing up of those peoples as to the various rulers, or those who had charge over various portions of the lands and peoples. The entity then among those, or that ONE given charge of that land THEN known as Deosho (?) - now Alexandria - that founded that making for the greatest collection of manuscripts, of writings, of the various forces, that has ever been known in the WORLD of experience in the earth's plane. The ENTITY then the FOUNDER of that as carried on by successive generations of the entity's descendants, as Arieecel [Ariecel]. In this experience the entity gained much through those associations of the ruler and of those that acted with the peoples that became emissaries; for as this was the outlet to many portions of the country to which emissaries and ambassadors were sent, the entity acted in the capacity of the one making the exchange and supplying those forces that builded for relationships with groups and individuals. Hence the ability to meet many elements as may arise in associations or relations with individuals, groups, classes or masses.

---

This reading for a contemporary of Barnabas suggests that at least some of the destruction occurred in the second century A.D.

quote:

---

452-5
He assisted Barnabas in the establishing of the church in northern Africa, or Alexandria, where so MUCH persecution LATER was shown in the activities in that center. Much that was compiled by the entity in this land was destroyed in or during the second century. This had been compiled in the great library in Alexandria. There are still intact some writings that may yet be reclaimed, in some of the ruins about the place; as well as in some of those cities in Chaldea and Persia where the entity in the last days went in company with Andrew.

---

Finally, a reading for an individual who had been one of Herod's wives suggest that Christians, Jews and Muslims may have been partially to blame for the loss.

quote:

---

2067-7
(Q) A Reading states that the historic events from the time of the prophets until Christ were written by Thesea, Herod's wife. [See 2067-1, Par. 57 indicating her writings were BASED ON the Alexandrian and the "city in hills" records.] Why did her children destroy these writings in the Alexandrian Library, and are there any of these writings left on earth at the present time?
(A) Her children did not destroy them. They were destroyed by the Mohammedans and the divisions in the church, who were of the Jews and not the Romans nor the mixture of the Roman and Jewish influence. There are not those records save as may be attained from some present in the Vatican.

---

Well Tom besides your following my outstanding post with this Edgar cayce claptrap,.... It really amazes me that I just posted the location of the library......
"By the fourth hour after landing they were settled near the eastern end of the long and broad avenue, one hundred feet wide and five miles long, which stretched on out to the western limits of this city of one million people. After the first survey of the city's chief attractionsÖuniversity (museum), library, the royal mausoleum of Alexander, the palace, temple of Neptune, theater, and gymnasiumÖGonod addressed himself to business while Jesus and Ganid went to the library, the greatest in the world. Here were assembled nearly a million manuscripts from all the civilized world: Greece, Rome, Palestine, Parthia, India, China, and even Japan. In this library Ganid saw the largest collection of Indian literature in all the world; and they spent some time here each day throughout their stay in Alexandria. "

quote:

---

By the fourth hour after landing they were settled near the eastern end of the long and broad avenue, one hundred feet wide and five miles long, which stretched on out to the western limits of this city of one million people.

---

Here is a passage that describes the layout of ancient Alexandria:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria

quote:

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Layout of the Ancient City

The Greek Alexandria was divided into three regions:

1. The Jews' quarter, forming the northeast portion of the city;
2. Rhacotis, on the west, occupied chiefly by Egyptians;
3. Brucheum, the Royal or Greek quarter, forming the most magnificent portion of the city.

In Roman times Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official quarter, making up four regions in all. The city was laid out as a grid of parallel streets, each of which had an attendant subterranean canal.

Two main streets, lined with colonnades and said to have been each about 60 meters (200 feet) wide, intersected in the centre of the city, close to the point where rose the Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (i.e. his Mausoleum). This point is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; and the line of the great east-west "Canopic" street only slightly diverged from that of the modern Boulevard de Rosette. Traces of its pavement and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate, but better remains of streets and canals were exposed in 1899 by German excavators outside the east fortifications, which lie well within the area of the ancient city.

Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a mole nearly a mile long and called the Heptastadion ("seven stadia" -- a stadium was a Roman unit measuring somewhat more than 200m). The end of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where rose the "Moon Gate." All that now lies between that point and the modern Ras et-Tin quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras et-Tin quarter represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On the east of the mole was the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour.

In Strabo's time, (latter half of 1st century BC) the principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen from a ship entering the Great Harbour.

1. The Royal Palaces, filling the northeast angle of the town and occupying the promontory of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbour on the east. Lochias (the modern Pharillon) has almost entirely disappeared into the sea, together with the palaces, the "Private Port" and the island of Antirrhodus. There has been a land subsidence here, as throughout the northeast coast of Africa.
2. The Great Theatre, on the modern Hospital Hill near the Ramleh station. This was used by Caesar as a fortress, where he stood a siege from the city mob after the battle of Pharsalus
3. The Poseideion, or Temple of the Sea God, close to the Theatre
4. The Timonium built by Mark Antony
5. The Emporium (Exchange)
6. The Apostases (Magazines)
7. The Navalia (Docks), lying west of the Timonium, along the sea-front as far as the mole
8. Behind the Emporium rose the Great Caesareum, by which stood the two great obelisks, each later known as "Cleopatra's Needle," and now removed to New York and London. This temple became in time the Patriarchal Church, some remains of which have been discovered; but the actual Caesareum, so far as not eroded by the waves, lies under the houses lining the new sea-wall.
9. The Gymnasium and the Palaestra are both inland, near the Boulevard de Rosette in the eastern half of the town; sites unknown.
10. The Temple of Saturn; site unknown.
11. The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of the two main streets
12. The Museum with its library and theatre in the same region; site unknown.
13. The Serapeum, the most famous of all Alexandrian temples. Strabo tells us that this stood in the west of the city; and recent discoveries go far to place it near "Pompey's Pillar" which, however, was an independent monument erected to commemorate Diocletian's siege of the city.

We know the names of a few other public buildings on the mainland, but nothing as to their position.

On the eastern point of the Pharos island stood the Great Lighthouse, one of the "Seven Wonders," reputed to be 122 meters (400 feet) high. The first Ptolemy began it, and the second completed it, at a total cost of 800 talents. It took 12 years to construct. It is the prototype of all lighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top. It was built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. The Pharos lighthouse was destroyed by an earthquake.

A temple of Hephaestus also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole. In the Augustan age the population of Alexandria was estimated at 300,000 free folk, in addition to an immense number of slaves.

---

As you can see, even the best descriptions of Alexandria tend to be vague as to where the original library was. It is also worth noting that most of the original ancient city has been destroyed by earthquakes and the royal and civic quarters have sunk beneath the harbor.

Interesting section about Jesus, though, Absonite. Scholars have long theorized that Jesus visited Egypt and the library while he was alive, now there is an account of it.

quote:

---

Absonite and Tom, you both have some very interesting material on the library, but as for it specifically telling us where the library is (was), it actually isn't very specific:

---

Yes, I can't argue with that. However, Cayce and others have suggested a possible reason. There was probably more that one location. In other words, it may have been a library system located in and around Alexandria.

I suggest we look for maps of ancient Alexandria and see if we have more than one that specifies the location of the ancient library.
http://www.utexas.edu/courses/citylife/images/alexandria_plan.gif
http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/alexandria/Gallery/old_map.gif

The Bagdad Battery: http://unmuseum.mus.pa.us/bbattery.htm

"A bird is an instrument of flight obeying mathematical laws which man has the capacity to comprehend and master." - Leonardo da Vinci

Ages ago civilizations from the peaks of the Andes to the deserts of North Africa made numerous discoveries. This body of knowledge still only partially recovered is surprising in its depth and sophistication. Ancient peoples found they could start making sense of the world and also transform it, accomplishing remarkable feats of engineering. No less remarkable is the progress made in thought and ideas.

Ancient Knowledge

In the 6th - 7th century B.C. the first steps were taken in applying logic and reason toward understanding the natural world and humanity itself.

The idea that the true nature of the world and man can be revealed through thought and contemplation alone is commonplace among early philosophies. Pythagoras and others introduced the idea that nature is guided by and constructed out of the perfection of geometry and whole numbers. Aristotle marked a significant advance over many philosophies with his notion that nature can be understood by observation using the human senses.

In Ancient Greece the philosopher Socrates proposed a starting point for all thinking:

"The only thing I know is that I know nothing."

- this was in stark contrast to most people who felt they 'knew' everything or at least a lot of things with absolute certainty.

During the Renaissance the French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes made a similar statement:

"I think, therefore I am" 'Cogito ergo sum'

- based on his idea that the only thing that cannot be doubted is doubt itself. The next logical conclusion is that the doubter exists.

Thales (640 - 550 B.C.)- "Father of Greek Philosophy" He found that rubbing amber caused it to attract light objects ( static electricity ) The word electricity comes from elektron - the Greek word for amber.

Around 550 B.C. Anaximander of Miletus draws first known map of the world (the part known to the Ionians at this time.) He places the map on a cylinder to represent the curvature of the Earth.

Pythagoras (582 - 507 B.C.) - mathematics and geometry, Greek philosopher and mathematician.

Alcmaeon of Croton (around 500 B.C.), a pupil of Pythagoras, studied the human sense organs and did at least some surgical procedures on the eye.

Empedocles and Anaxagoras (500 - 428 B.C.) plus others discovered the cause of eclipses and could predict them accurately. Meton around 433 B.C. devised a 19 year calendar that related the lunar months to the solar year.

Democritus (460 - 370 B.C.) argued that all matter is composed of atoms (small indivisible particles) - substances are different due to different kinds of atoms.

Hippocrates of Cos (469 - 399 B.C.) - Father of Medicine emphasized direct and practical treatment of illness. Sickness is a natural result of imbalances in diet and conduct of life not of divine origin. He observes that a man involved in lead mining has developed abdominal cramps. Reason and experience were properly the main tools of a doctor in treating the sick not speculative ideas and notions.

Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.) - philosophy

The Round Earth
The notion that the Earth is round (spherical) existed well before the Renaissance. When Eratosthenes, a scholar in Egypt during Hellenistic times, learned that a shaft of sunlight penetrated to the bottom of a well in Syrene on the summer solstice, he deduced that he could use the information to measure the circumference of the Earth. Around the same time, another Egyptian scholar, Aristarchus of Samos, was trying to figure out how far the moon and sun are from the Earth. In the process, he deduced that the moon orbits the Earth, and the Earth orbits the sun. His insight came a millennium and a half before Copernicus, however, it was not appreciated at the time or widely published.

Writing
Cuneiform script
Writing cuneiform script involves using the end of a hollow reed stem or stylus to make wedge shaped marks on clay tablets (wet cakes of clay.) When the tablets dry they become hard and durable, many examples survive to this day. Cuneus is Latin for wedge.

When Sargon of Akkad ascended to power in 2300 B.C.E. the Akkadian language began to be written in cuneifom too, Assyrian and Babylonian are dialects of Akkadian.

The earliest writings by the Egyptians were on stone but papyrus (a type of paper made by mashing reeds together) has been found from 2600 B.C.E.

Aramaic alphabetic script
After the conquests of Alexander the Great the use of cuneiform declined in favor of the much more convienant Aramaic alphabetic script. The last texts in cuneiform are dated around 75 A.D.

Measurement
2500 B.C. standard weights developed by the Sumerians and used in trading are the "shekel" of 0.29 oz (8.36 grams) and the "mina" which is 60 times heavier.

2100 B.C. the oldest preserved standard of length is the foot of the statue of Lagash, ruler of Gudea. It is divided into sixteen parts and is 10.41 inches long (26.45 cm.)

2000 B.C. Besides the "shekel" and the "mina" the Sumerians have units of volume: the "log" (33 cubic inches or 541 mL) and the "homer", equal to 720 logs. The cubit and the foot are units of length, with the foot being two-thirds the length of a cubit.

Ancient Civilizations

Name Approximate dates Location Major cities
Sumerian 3200-2360 B.C.E. Mesopotamia Ur, Nippur
Indus Valley 3000-1500 B.C.E. Pakistan,
Northwestern India —
Minoan 3000-1100 B.C.E. Crete Knossos
Egyptian 2850-715 B.C.E. Nile valley Thebes, Memphis,
Tanis
Akkadian 2350-2230 B.C.E. Mesopotamia, parts of
Syria, Asia Minor,
Iran Akkad, Ur, Erich
Assyrian 1800-889 B.C.E. Mesopotamia, Syria Assur, Nineveh,
Calah
Babylonian 1728-1686 B.C.E. (old)
625-539 B.C.E. (new) Mesopotamia, Syria,
Palestine Babylon
Hittite 1640-1200 B.C.E. Asia Minor, Syria Hattusas, Nesa
Phoenician 1100-332 B.C.E. Palestine (colonies:
Gibraltar, Carthage,
Sardinia) Tyre, Sidon, Byblos
Phrygian 1000-547 B.C.E. Central Asia Minor Gordion
Etruscan 900-396 B.C.E. Northern Italy —
Greek 900-200 B.C.E. Greece Athens, Sparta,
Thebes, Mycenae,
Corinth
Mede 835-550 B.C.E. Iran Media
Scythian 800-300 B.C.E. Caucasus —
Cimmerian 750-500 B.C.E. Caucasus, northern Asia
Minor —
Lydian 700-547 B.C.E. Western Asia Minor Sardis, Miletus
Persian 559-330 B.C.E. Iran, Asia Minor, Syria Persepolis,
Pasargadae
Roman 500 B.C.E.-C.E. 300 Italy, Mediterranean
region, Asia Minor,
western Europe Rome, Byzantium

The Library at Alexandria

Ptolemy I (Ptolemaios Soter) is persuaded by Demetrios Phalereus in 307 B.C. to collect copies of all known books to be placed in Alexandria in an institution known as the Library.

This repository and university of knowledge flourished for many centuries eventually amassing over 750,000 scrolls and papers on a wide range of subjects. Here, at one place, was the sum knowledge of the Ancient world.

Unfortunately in a series of wars and struggles that swept through the Mediterranean the great library and its contents were destroyed. What is clear is that most of the facts and discoveries in the Library at Alexandria would not be re-discovered for nearly another millenium.

Euclid (300 B.C.) - mathematican - invented foundation of a complete geometry

Archimedes (287-212 B.C.E.) - Greek physicist and mathematician

Greek physicist and mathematician

Archimedes' Principle water displacement. hydrostatics and mechanics. Lever and compound pulley. Born in Syracuse around 235 BC he said, concerning levers
"Give me a place to stand, and I will move the Earth."

Invention and Discovery
Hero (Heron) of Alexandria - 1st century AD built the first steam engine. Called the aeolipile the device was a hollow sphere with vents on opposite sides. Steam pumped into the sphere caused the sphere to spin rapidly. There was no practical use made of this very primitive steam engine.

China

paper and publishing
704 AD oldest surviving piece of printing is a charm scroll from China.
By the 10th century AD publishing exploded in China.

compass - magnetic lodestone
mechanical clock
inoculation against disease
suspension bridge
umbrella
fishing pole

Chinese alchemists researching substances for extending life discovered gunpowder. Referred to in 9th century AD texts. Gunpowder was the only explosive known for more than 500 yrs. Rudimentary guns were developed but not perfected. The Chinese army was equipped with gunpowder weapons in the 11th century. But gunpowder was used mostly for enjoyment as fireworks.

Arrows launched from a gun powder filled tube mounted on a stick could fly over 1000 yards. These were the first rocket weapons.

17 century onward Chinese technology declined and the Europeans ascended.

The Rebirth of Knowledge - The Renaissance
First recorded case of body snatching (grave robbing) for medical dissection is prosecuted in 1319. A 1240 decree of the Holy Roman Empire permits the dissection of human cadavers.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
master painter and artist
Mona Lisa and the Last Supper

inventor
parachute
helicopter
airplane and flight
submarine
evil nature of man who would practice assassination from the bottom of the seas.

tank
8 men to work it, to break through the ranks

machine gun
designed multi-barral cannon
hydrodynamics

civil engineering
psychology and anatomy

In his sketchbooks he could write backwards with his left hand while sketching with his right. He wrote his notes in "mirror fashion" reversed and backwards.

He described war as madness.

A bird is an instrument of flight obeying mathematical laws which man has the capacity to comprehend and master.

It wasn't until the late 1800s that his notebooks were carefully examined and his brilliance fully appreciated.

Johann Gutenberg (1396 - 1468) - The invention of movable type in printing starts an explosion of writing and publishing. By the end of the 15th century 35,000 different books have been published with 20 million copies made, almost half the books concern religion. 77% of all books are in Latin. 20 million books were made within 50 years of the invention of the printing press, within 100 years ten times that number of books (200 million) were available.

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People

Thales Of Miletus

6th century BC philosopher remembered for his cosmology based on water as the essence of all matter. According to the Greek thinker Apollodorus, he was born in 624; the Greek historian Diogenes Laërtius placed his death in the 58th Olympiad (548-545) at the age of 78.

Anaximander

b. 610 BC, Miletus [now in Turkey] d. 546/545 BC

Greek philosopher who proposed an origin of the universe without reference to supernatural forces thus establishing natural philosophy as a discipline separate from religion. Often called the founder of astronomy, the first thinker to develop a cosmology, or systematic philosophical view of the world.

Pythagoras

b. c. 580 BC,, Samos, Ionia d. c. 500,, Metapontum, Lucania

Parmenides

b. c. 515 BC

Understanding nature must come reason rather than experience.

Anaxagoras

b. c. 500 BC,, Clazomenae, Anatolia [now in Turkey] d. c. 428,, Lampsacus

Brings Ionian philosophy to Athens. Discovers the true cause of solar eclipses and believes that there is an infinite number of elements.

Zeno Of Elea - greek philosopher and mathematician

(c. 495 BC-c. 430 BC)

Known best for his paradoxes that contributed to the development of logical and mathematical rigor and that were insoluble until the development of precise concepts of continuity and infinity.

Empedocles

b. c. 490 BC,, Acragas, Sicily d. 430, the Peloponnese, Greece Greek philosopher, statesman, poet, religious teacher, and physiologist.

c. 450 BC - Asserts that all matter in the universe is made of different proportions of earth, air, fire, and water. Also brought forth the idea of four bodily humours: blood; phlegm; choler, or yellow bile; and melancholy, or black bile. Health could only be maintained through maintaining a balance between these humours.

c. 431 BC - Greek medical teachings are brought together into the Hippocratic corpus, establishing ethical standards of medical practice.

Hippocrates b. c. 460 BC,, island of Cos, Greece d. c. 377,, Larissa, Thessaly

c. 400 BC - Brahmanic hospitals are set up in Sri Lanka

367 BC - Aristotle begins his studies at Plato's Academy. Aristotle's prodigious writings on astronomy, biology and many other fields virtually dominate western and Islamic thinking until the 17th century.

Eudoxus Of Cnidus Astronomer and mathematician

b. c. 400,, Cnidus, Asia Minor [now in Turkey] d. c. 350 BC,, Cnidus

c. 360 BC - Expounds a system of geocentric, homocentric spheres to account for irregularities in planetary motion

c. 350 BC. Aristotle's work on zoology and biology lays the foundation for physiological thought for over 2,000 years with the heart as the primary organ.

Theophrastus

b. c. 372 BC,, Eresus, Lesbos d. c. 287

Succeeds Aristotle as head of the Lyceum. Carries on Aristotle's ideas especially in biology and botany. These views heavily influence life sciences until the Renaissance.

Euclid

Elements - the defining book on geometry for over 2,000 years. taught at and founded a school at Alexandria in the time of Ptolemy I Soter, who reigned from 323 to 285/283 BC.

Herophilus

b. c. 335 BC,, Chalcedon, Bithynia d. c. 280

Alexandrian physician performs dissection of cadavers and details first anatomical accurate descriptions of the eye, brain and various other organs.

Aristarchus Of Samos

(c. 310-230 BC)

Constructs geometric model for determining the relative distances to the Sun and moon. Advances first known heliocentric view of the solar system.

Erasistratus Of Ceos

c. 250 BC Greek anatomist and physician in Alexandria, regarded by some as the founder of physiology. Studies the anatomy of the brain, veins, and arteries. Describes the bicuspid and tricuspid valves of the heart.

Eratosthenes Of Cyrene

b. c. 276 BC, Cyrene, Libya d. c. 194, Alexandria, Egypt

Greek scientific writer, astronomer, and poet, the first man known to have calculated the Earth's circumference. Director of the great library of Alexandria.

Events

2700 BC the first pyramids are constructed in Egypt
2700 BC legendary Chinese emperor Shen Nung invents acupuncture.
2575 BC work begins on the great pyramids at Giza.
2300 BC legendary Chinese emperor Fu Hsi creates dualistic cosmic theory of yin and yang.
1790 BC In the Babylonian Empire the Code of Hammurabi sets fees for medical practice and punishments for malpractice.
1600 BC the Minoan civilization is at its peak, both culturally and in terms of technology. Conveniences at the palace at Knossos include bathrooms and running water.
1500 BC Water clocks are in use in Egypt. Simple water clocks, or clepsydras, are in use throughout the ancient world.
1200 BC paved roads in use in Near Eastern cities
1100 BC Phoenician dominance of the Mediterranean Sea begins extending to at least 800 BC Oars replace paddles in the very efficient Phoenician ships.

Edwin Smith papyrus - 1600 BC - written account of Egyptian medical practices from diagnosis, to a range of therapeutic measures including surgery.

Ebers papyrus - 1500 BC - Egyptian medical text on internal diseases, diseases of the eye, skin and extremities

Ideas

Greek schools of Philosophy: Eleaticism
Ionian school
Pythagoreanism
Sophist

Ionian school - school of Greek philosophers of the 6th to 5th century BC, including Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heracleitus, Anaxagoras, Diogenes of Apollonia, Archelaus, and Hippon. Although Ionia was the original centre of their activity, they differed so greatly from one another in their conclusions that they cannot be said to have represented a specific school of philosophy. Their common concern to explain phenomena in terms of matter or physical forces, however, distinguished them from later thinkers.

Pythagoreanism - a school of philosophy that believes reality has a mathematical nature and imbues certain numbers with mystical power.

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Where lies the source of our civilization? There are many theories, some based upon scientific research, others on mere fantasy, but what do we really know? In the past decades, everywhere around the globe, new theories arised, which were radically different from the established assumptions. Perhaps we do not originate from primitive primates, but from an unknown advanced civilization, which existed long ago on Earth, but had been completely forgotten long before history begun...

Thousands of years before Egyptian civilization flourished along the Nile, the Sumerians lived in what later would be known as Babylonia. Their knowledge reached beyond that of later, ancient civilizations. A man named Zecharia Sitchin was the first to translate Sumerian clay tablets left behind by them. His work was the first step into what we know today about the Sumerians.

Nine thousand years ago, the Sumerians were able to draw the solar system with the exact orbits and sizes of the planets we know today. Where modern science only discovered the planet of Pluto in 1930, the Sumerians knew of the planet's existence thousands of years ago. However, the clay tablets show an other planet, beyond Pluto, comparable in size with Saturn.

The Sumerians know it as Nibiru, a planet which circles around the sun in 3,600 Earth-years. The number 3,600 was written as a large cicle in Sumerian. The epithet for the planet, shar, also means a perfect circle or a completed cycle. The reign periods a Sumerian text gives are also perfect multiples of the 3,600 year shar. The conclusion that suggests itself is that these shar's ruler ship were related to the orbital period shar.

Recent advances in DNA-research have established that there was an Eve who lived about 250 to 270 thousand years ago: a first mother from who all modern humans stem, no matter what their racial heritage. See the image on the right-top of this page: the two entwined snake-like creatures and the ladder like ribbons between the serpents bodies. The discovery by modern science of the double helix structure of DNA offers the answer to what this image represents: the entwined serpents (still the symbol of medicine today) emulated the structure of the genetic code, the secret knowledge of which enabled the creation of man; the first man the Annuaki (the people from Nibiru, according to the Sumerians) created, called the Adam. Images of comparable creatures return on several clay tablets and wall paintings.

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